# ind_items

authors_index: mccleskey, jim
primary_title_index: brq
secondary_title_index: the business renaissance quarterly
title_index: the dark side of leadership: measurement, assessment, and intervention
abstract_index:
       this manuscript addresses derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism individually, discusses the assessment of dark leadership, and describes various strategies intended to ad-dress dark leadership in organizational settings. kellerman (2004) suggested that despite decades of unconditional positive regard toward leaders and leadership, “flawed leaders are everywhere”
  (p. 41), and in many cases, bad or unworthy individuals hold leadership positions successfully. the multifaceted study of these leaders and their behavior is dark leadership. dark leadership encompasses the concepts of derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism. the research conducted over the past five years, along with a hand full of seminal sources presented
  here, describe the empirical work on dark leadership within these three facets.     

full_text_index:
       see discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272353179  the dark side of leadership: measurement, assessment, and intervention article · january 2013 citations  reads  18  1,173  1 author: jim allen mccleskey western governors university 18 publications 386 citations see profile  some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:  affective presence and affect-based trust and conflict in work teams view project  all content following this page was uploaded by jim allen mccleskey on 22 september 2019.  the user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.   the business renaissance quarterly - brq volume 8, issue 2-3, summer - fall 2013  cover design: joan marques  issn number: 1930-7462  the business renaissance quarterly is published in one volume of four issues a year, appearing in spring, summer, fall, and winter.  i  
  the business renaissance quarterly a publication from the business renaissance institute and its sponsors  board of directors dr. richard king dr. joan marques dr. satinder dhiman editor dr. joan marques advisory board dr. ian mitroff dr. lee bolman dr. judi neal dr. turan senguder dr. marjo lips-wiersma  ________________________________________________ volume 8 summer - fall 2013 issue 2-3  ii  
  manuscript reviewers for the brq lead reviewers: dr. satinder dhiman dr. joan marques dr. richard king reviewers: mr. rinaldo brutoco prof. varinder kumar dr. mona yousry dr. jui-kuei chen dr. rauf khan dr. andrea smith-hunter dr. anne abraham dr. mohammed nadeem dr. swarup mohanty i-shuo chen  iii  
  manuscript reviewers as a double blind reviewed journal, the business renaissance quarterly depends on qualified individuals to serve as manuscript reviewers. reviewers are unique contributors to the field of enhancing work life in that they help determine the quality and the nature of the research and the publications shared with readers. individuals who wish to be considered as manuscript reviewers should take the following actions:     submit a complete curriculum vita, listing educational background, professional employment, publications and presentations, and other relevant information. include a statement describing specific areas of work life enhancement interest they have, such as  human resource development issues  emotional intelligence  organizational leadership  responsible efficiency enhancing procedures  workplace diversity  spirituality in the workplace  organizational communication  organizational culture  relationship theories, and other.  the brq editorial board reviews these materials on a continuing basis, so that potential reviewers can be notified within the shortest time regarding their status as a reviewer. materials should be sent to: editor brq 532 south lake avenue pasadena, california 91101-3529  iv  
  the business renaissance quarterly (print issn 1930-7462) is published quarterly by the business renaissance institute, 532 south lake avenue pasadena, california 91101-3529, and is sponsored by individual and corporate donors, who all value the purpose of enhancing the quality of life in the workplace. copyright 2013 business renaissance institute no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, photocopying or otherwise without the expressed written permission of the business renaissance institute. subscription rates: for institutions, agencies, and libraries 80.00 in the united states; 100.00 in canada and mexico, 120.00 in the rest of the world. for individuals, 60.00 in the united states, canada and mexico, and 80.00 in the rest of the world. single-issue price:  20.00 for institutions, and for individuals. for students: 50.00 per year, and 15.00 per single issue. to ensure correct and prompt delivery, all orders must give either the name of an individual or an official purchase order number. subscription orders should be mailed to: business renaissance quarterly 532 south lake avenue pasadena, california 91101-3529 editorial correspondence may be sent via e-mail to the editor, dr. joan marques, at jmarques01@earthlink.net  v  
  acknowledgement of financial support the board of directors gratefully acknowledges the financial support given to the business renaissance quarterly by individuals, corporations and organizations. this support helps make it possible to maintain the standards of quality required of a dual based journal with a quality of life enhancing purpose.  the following individuals and organizations are acknowledged as supporters of the brq:    the business renaissance frontier group    the business renaissance institute and its charter members    the subscribers to the journal the authors of papers and articles submitted to the brq  vi  
  brq statement of purpose the board members of the business renaissance quarterly are aware of the global impact and influence of business organizations. as a consequence, they are also aware of the necessity of a source that strongly emphasizes business’ responsibility toward performing at a level that ensures increased return on investment, along with enhanced quality and quantity of output, and overall elevated human satisfaction in- and outside the immediate business environment. it is because of the need for greater understanding in this area that the brq focuses on the unification of products created by strong, positive, insightful business-oriented minds. this, then, is the main reason for the existence of the business renaissance quarterly.  vii  
  disclaimer as a dual oriented journal, the business renaissance quarterly contains the views, thoughts, assertions and opinions of its contributing authors. the information provided by these authors does not necessarily represent the opinion of the brq. the brq makes no representations about the accuracy of the information contained herein, and the inclusion of the information herein shall not be construed as an endorsement, either explicitly or implicitly, of the information by the brq. the business renaissance quarterly disclaims any and all responsibility or liability resulting from the information contained in the journal.  viii  
  articles for placement consideration in the business renaissance quarterly can be emailed to: jmarques01@earthlink.net for information on submitting an article to the brq, please visit www.brqjournal.com  ix  
  x  
  contents  research papers: striving for academic excellence in business education: an integrated framework charles d. kerns, pepperdine university and corperformance, inc.  page: 1  there is a need for business education to find the intersection of business practice, intellectual contributions and teaching. achieving this connection will likely advance the relevance and impact of business education. the idea of striving to integrate practice, intellectual contributions and teaching provides the basis for an operational definition of academic excellence. a definition of academic excellence along with a framework reflecting three spheres of influence that, when effectively integrated enhance academic excellence, are reviewed. a brief proven application of the framework showing how it can be utilized by business school faculty is also provided. some implications of this framework are offered.  fair value’s affect on accounting’s ability to predict future cash flows keji chen, california state university, northridge ramachandran ramanan, university of notre dame gregory a. sommers, southern methodist university gary k. taylor, university of alabama  21  this study assesses the ability of the outputs from an accounting system to predict future cash flows. specifically, we focus on a “complete fair value” accounting system’s ability to predict future cash flows as compared to the predictive ability of an accounting system implementing a variety of accounting attributes (including, for example, historical cost and fair value, among others). we find that the outputs from an accounting system implementing a variety of ac-  xi  
  counting attributes has greater information content for future cash flows than the outputs from a “complete fair value” accounting system. the results of this study imply that moving toward a fair value accounting system may reduce accounting data’s predictive ability for future cash flows.  the dark side of leadership: measurement, assessment, and intervention jim mccleskey, north american university  35  this manuscript addresses derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism individually, discusses the assessment of dark leadership, and describes various strategies intended to ad-dress dark leadership in organizational settings. kellerman (2004) suggested that despite decades of unconditional positive regard toward leaders and leadership, “flawed leaders are everywhere” (p. 41), and in many cases, bad or unworthy individuals hold leadership positions successfully. the multifaceted study of these leaders and their behavior is dark leadership. dark leadership encompasses the concepts of derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism. the research conducted over the past five years, along with a hand full of seminal sources presented here, describe the empirical work on dark leadership within these three facets.  meeting the needs of business: assessing market need and demand for a graduate level diversity concentration roxanne helm stevens, azusa pacific university mark dickerson, azusa pacific university  55  this paper notes current workforce trends and considers how future leaders will be faced with managing multi-cultural work environments. the authors discuss the skills required for future leaders and propose a graduate level diversity concentration for equipping graduate business students to lead the organization and workforce of tomorrow. with this in mind, a research study was designed to discover the relationship  xii  
  between students’ perceptions and inclinations of pursuing a concentration within a master of arts in management program while simultaneously assessing which concentrations potential and current students would desire. in order to evaluate students’ perceptions, survey research was utilized to evaluate perceptions of current graduate and undergraduate business students towards three incentives (influence of job market outcomes, cost of required courses, and motivational factors) to pursuing a concentration. the goal is to statistically evaluate which construct is most responsible for students’ decisions to pursue a concentration, and further to determine the interest in obtaining a diversity concentration from the students’ perspective.  short paper: meeting service level challenges through proactive strategies robert s. fleming, ed.d., rowan university faye x. zhu, ph.d., rowan university  77  the success and survival of any organization is based on its ability to meet and, where possible, exceed the expectations of stakeholders. challenges associated with service delivery consistent with these expectations can result from developments in an organization’s external environment. this article considers how contemporary emergency service organizations can successfully address the increasing service demands resulting from the aging of the “baby boomer” generation through engaging in a paradigm shift from traditional strategies to a proactive community risk reduction approach.  information for contributors  89  board of directors of the business renaissance quarterly  93  xiii  
  board of advisors of the business renaissance quarterly  95  the business renaissance institute  97  xiv  
  xv  
  research papers  striving for academic excellence in business education: an integrated framework charles d. kerns, pepperdine university and corperformance, inc.  abstract there is a need for business education to find the intersection of business practice, intellectual contributions and teaching. achieving this connection will likely advance the relevance and impact of business education. the idea of striving to integrate practice, intellectual contributions and teaching provides the basis for an operational definition of academic excellence. a definition of academic excellence along with a framework reflecting three spheres of influence that, when effectively integrated enhance academic excellence, are reviewed. a brief proven application of the framework showing how it can be utilized by business school faculty is also provided. some implications of this framework are offered.  introduction over the past quarter of a century business practitioners, educators and researchers have criticized business schools for being misaligned with what is relevant and impactful in the real world of business and leadership (benjamin & o’reilly, 2011). recently, bennis and o’toole (2005) criticized b-schools for viewing academic excellence mainly in terms of scientific rigor of faculty scholarship while largely overlooking the preparation of future managerial leaders for practice in organizational settings. they flat out assert that, “business schools are on the wrong track.” prior to this assertion porter and the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  1  
  mckibbin (1988) in a well-publicized report, along with others, suggest that business schools have lost their relevance. when addressing the topic of leadership, conger (2004), makes the case that purely academic frameworks of leadership often present generic models rather than recognizing situational context. these observations are in accord with others who claim that business schools are substantially irrelevant to leadership and the practice of management (ghoshal, 2005; pfeffer & fong, 2004). mintzberg (2004) proclaims that not only what faculty teach is misguided, but also materials and methods used are wrong. in addition, benjamin and o’reilly (2011) note academics often deliver knowledge and teachings that are not useful to practicing managerial leaders. business school faculty often, as tushman and o’reilly (2007) point out, provide what they know to students rather than offer what students need. wellborn and singer (2013) further point out in their research that there is a disconnect between materials used in the business school classroom and what employers need. for additional commentary on critical points regarding business school education, see cohen and billsberry (2013) as well as clineball and clineball (2008). on a more encouraging note, however, there is evidence from others that suggest ways to help integrate traditional scholarship activities with business practice. rubin and dierdorff (2013), for example, offer some suggestions for the future relating to business education and business outcomes. brown, charlier, rynes and hosmanek (2013) recommend using more class time for experiential or reflective activities to supplement the learning of straight content. knowledge management, human resources, and business education are creatively explored by brewer and brewer (2010) in a model that relates somewhat to the impact dimension discussed in this article. they adapt blooms taxonomy for classifythe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  2  
  ing, writing and assessing knowledge acquisition and assert that, “academic communities should be viewed as knowledge-based organizations involved in the processes of developing knowledge workers.” this assertion is in alignment with the author’s belief that business education should add value to the individual learner’s career as well as to the organizations in which they serve. in terms of executive education, haskins and clawson (2005) have offered approximately thirty practical interventions that faculty can use with executive students to advance the transfer of learning by program participants back to their organizations. similarly, garman (2011) offers some useful avenues for research to become more helpful to practitioners, while yip and raelin (2011) further connect the teaching of leadership with practice by providing a discussion about various concepts and methods to accomplish the connecting of leadership research, practice and teaching. reeve and jang’s (2006) instructional behaviors, including offering time for independent work, are likely ways to help integrate scholarship with business practice in classrooms and other learning environments. currently business schools are, indeed, challenged by critical voices including scholar-practitioners as well as non-traditional providers of business education. two important topics that critics raise as issues and alternative educational providers work to address are relevance and impact. as a former associate dean of academic affairs at a large aacsb accredited school of business, the author endeavored to address this criticism relating to relevance and impact. this project began about a decade ago and continues as part of the business school’s mission. the mission, in part, relates to providing relevant and impactful educational experiences to students. this article offers a framework, related operational definition and application that have proven to be useful the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  3  
  in addressing the issues of relevance and impact in business education. it is an evolving process. readers are encouraged to adapt this framework to help enhance the relevance and impact of their business connections, intellectual contributions and teaching in an integrated manner. the focus of this article is on showing how an integrated approach to academic excellence can be applied by faculty. however, it may also be useful to individuals serving in academic leadership positions as well as professionals in the business education industry outside of academia. relevance and impact dynamics making business education relevant and impactful to a learner’s professional life and work is a laudable goal. relevance concerns the extent to which the content and process of the educational experience is perceived by the learner as relating to the real world of work. in turn, impact deals with the extent to which knowledge and take aways from the learning environment are applied or can be applied in the future by the learner outside the classroom or learning arena. impact relates to how the learning experience applies to work as assessed by the learner. figure 1 depicts the relationship between relevance of the learning content and process for the learner and the impact the learning experience has on the learners’ professional life and work. both dimensions (x-horizontal axis impact; y-vertical axis relevance) can be represented by a likert type rating scale with gradients ranging from 1-5 (5 highest rating) or by using various appropriate descriptive anchors to index each gradient on each of the two dimensions. while a discussion of the learning analytics associated with measuring these two dimensions is beyond the scope of this article, the interested reader is referred to the aacsb 2013 business accreditation standards (new impact metrics) and to kirkthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  4  
  patrick and kirkpatrick (2006) as well as phillips (2003). also butler, forbes and johnson (2008) assessed a welldefined set of business skills for relevance and impact on learners beyond the business school classroom. as elaborated in this work, the specific relevant skills approach applied in an mba-level leadership coaching course proved to positively impact the participant’s professional lives and work. in an extensive review of the literature, paglis (2013) found substantial support for teaching specific managerial leadership skills.  q1: relevant – lacks impact: this situation occurs when the learner finds the learning environment (content and process) useful and connected to business practice. however, the learner does not transfer the frameworks and tools into practice outside the classroom learning environment.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  5  
  q2: irrelevant – lacks impact: the dynamics in this quadrant finds the learning experience irrelevant and the take aways lacking in applicability to the real world of business. the learner does not expect to apply the classroom experience to his/her work and professional life. q3: irrelevant – impactful: in this instance, while the learning experience, especially the processes used, is seen as largely irrelevant, the learner finds ways to apply the knowledge and learnings to his/her work. the learner, in this case, takes the initiative to explore ways to adapt and apply topics and activities reviewed in class to his/her work. (for instance, classroom activities or other processes may seem interesting and entertaining but if they do not connect to real world business experiences, it is left to the more conscientious learner to transfer these types of in-class learning experiences to the outside world.) q4: relevant – impactful: this quadrant finds learners experiencing the learning environment as relevant and transferrable to situations they face in business and in their professional lives. reaching quadrant 4 in academic learning settings is the goal. the management of the dynamic interplay between relevant learning experiences and their impact on a learner’s work environment are key considerations in faculty efforts to enhance academic excellence. the topic of academic excellence within a school of business should include the topics of relevance and impacts as described in this article. the following integrated framework is offered to help advance relevance and impact as key aspects of the educational learning experience. ultimately, an excellent academic learning experience should add value to the learner’s current and future work situation and help him/her enhance his/her career.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  6  
  academic excellence framework to increase the relevance and impactfulness of the academic experience for students and to enhance faculty performance, as a business school leader, the author developed the framework seen in figure 2 to guide the selection, evaluation and development of faculty. this framework helped align faculty along three spheres of influence that, if managed effectively, would enhance the relevance and impact of student learning. this article highlights how these three spheres can be managed by a faculty member to enhance academic excellence. the framework was influenced by the boyer model (1990). as indicated in figure 2, there are three overlapping spheres of influence in the integrated framework for enhancing academic excellence:  business practice/connections  intellectual contributions  teaching in practice, the effective business school faculty member strives to find the intersection, or “sweet spot,”  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  7  
  where his/her connections with business practice, intellectual contributions and teaching come together to make the learning experience relevant and impactful. one can begin linking these spheres of influence to create an integrated approach for enhancing academic excellence at any one of the three spheres. when they are effectively integrated by a faculty member, these three spheres may account for a substantial portion of the variance attributable to academic excellence relating to faculty relevance and impact. in fact, one might “operationalize” academic excellence from a business practice perspective as "outstanding teaching, relevant business connections and quality consumable practiceconnected intellectual contributions." the effective integration of these three components helps drive relevance and impact for learners and their organizations. typically, the author uses business connections (as a result of 11 years as a healthcare executive, 25 years as a consulting organizational psychologist), to instruct his intellectual contribution, and both business connections and intellectual contribution to instruct his teaching. to see some potential practices that a faculty member can use to drive each of the three spheres within the integrated framework, refer to figure 3. taken together these three spheres of influence, along with appropriate practices, form key elements of our operational definition of academic excellence. within the context of this framework, academic excellence is operationally defined as, “enhancing the relevance and impact of student learning by providing the learner with an integrated program of learning experiences that connect to business practice, consumable friendly intellectual contributions and teaching.”  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  8  
  operationalizing academic excellence: an example over the author’s career as a scholar-practitioner, one goal has been to help managerial leaders, business students and colleagues find the relevant and useful connections between topics taught, real world business concerns, and consumable friendly practitioner oriented resources, especially publications. the integrated framework offered in this article has been used by the author in his roles as a faculty member and a business school administrator. the author has also implicitly used an informal version of this framework in executive managerial leadership roles outside academics and in his role as an industrial organizational psycholothe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  9  
  gist/management consultant/executive coach. currently, this framework seems to be aligned with the recent aacsb final research report (aacsb 2008) and with the new accreditation standards calling for more connection between academics and practicing managers in the production and application of knowledge (wellborn & singer 2013; aacsb, 2010). along these lines, frameworks and tools and other mechanisms need to be developed to strengthen the connection between teaching, practice and the production of consumable friendly resources, especially published works. cohen and billsberry (2013) point out that during this process it is important for the scholar to be a “curious practitioner” by knowing what is going on in the world and in the relevant literature. to help further explain and operationalize the framework offered here, a brief example is provided. it is hoped that this example will be useful to business school faculty, in particular, as they strive to operationalize and enhance academic excellence as defined in this article. the three spheres of influence in the framework (business practice connection, intellectual contribution and teaching) are described below using a common topic relating to strategic direction setting. sphere: business practice connection faculty involvement in business will be reflective of personal areas of expertise as well as connections to business developed over time. by way of example, as a business consultant in the area of leadership development, the author has spent more than twenty years experimenting with various models/approaches in applied settings working to help entrepreneurial oriented organizations develop a strategic direction. client firms have ranged in size from small founder-dominated enterprises to divisions within large multi-billion dollar global corporate structures. the strategic direction setting approach reflects a multi-disciplinary approach, including elements of strategy, organizational behavior, marketthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  10  
  ing and finance. this work in collaboration with numerous business leaders in these applied settings has resulted in many companies applying this approach to strategic direction to enhance their respective strategic directions. (the integrated framework for enhancing academic excellence featured in this article and displayed in figure 2 stemmed from this and related work.) sphere: intellectual contribution traditional faculty intellectual contribution can take many forms. intellectual contributions can be applied, pedagogical, and/or discipline based in nature (boyer, 1990). in keeping with the strategic direction setting framework described above, the author produced an article for an academic journal which enjoys both an academic and practitioner audience (kerns, 2002). this article details the strategic direction approach that was the result of years of experimentation and work with senior executive leaders and entrepreneurial business owners. the centerpiece of the publication is an example drawn from the author’s actual consulting work with a client firm. while the detailing of this strategic direction setting approach is beyond the scope of this article, it is appropriate to note that a “practical strategic direction sheet” was presented as an integral tool in this process. the strategic direction sheet reflects in one to three pages an organization’s vision, mission, key result areas, strategy and structure. it is produced by facilitating a group of executives within a specific company through a systematic stepwise process. many client organizations over the past twenty years have found this approach to be relevant and impactful in helping them document, communicate and implement a positive as well as motivating strategic direction.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  11  
  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  12  
  sphere: teaching strength and effectiveness of teaching is the final area of focus for academic excellence. integrating business connections and intellectual contribution into teaching helps one reach the optimal intersection of the three spheres. further to the above example, the described applied research/field work with managerial leaders has been successfully transferred into business school classes. the author has integrated both the business connections and experiences with executives as well as the published article into his teachings, including executive mba classes, full-time mba classes and my fully-employed mba sessions. in all cases this approach has resonated with these learners. they have observed it to be relevant and applicable to their work. this particular topic is often evaluated by these business school students in their post-course evaluations as being one of the most beneficial and impactful topics that was covered in their learning experience. briefly, the essential ways that this strategic direction setting approach was incorporated into organizational behavior and leadership classes is three fold. first, in preparation for the class session covering the topic of strategic thinking and direction setting, for example, students are asked to read a published article on this topic and be prepared to apply it in a real-world oriented experiential in-class mini-workshop. second, during this strategic thinking and direction setting class session about two hours are set aside to address the topic. in this session, two to four students who have an interest in starting a company or in growing a business unit within an organization are asked to volunteer to be the focus of the experiential strategic direction setting mini-workshop. these volunteers are asked to present to a small group of fellow students their ideas regarding a strategic direction for the entity they want to develop. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  13  
  their ideas are organized around the areas offered in the session pre-read article. in turn, the other students in the class who do not volunteer are assigned to be “consultants” to one of the volunteering students. the “consultants” are charged with helping the student volunteer shape his/her strategic direction. third, after the small group exchanges between the volunteering student and consulting students, the volunteer is asked to present the key positive and motivating elements in his/her strategic direction. in turn, after all volunteers have presented, the full class engages in a rich discussion about how this work can be used outside the classroom to help them help their current organizations and/or to help positively impact their careers. the author has also found the topics relating to leadership to be especially fruitful in connecting to this academic excellence framework. a recent area of research and consulting is being imported into the business classroom as an experiential activity on how to shape workplace purpose and meaningfulness (kerns, 2013). faculty are encouraged, in terms of teaching, to develop a list of contemporary research and/or business experiences and to utilize this work in their teaching. it can be challenging, value-adding and fun to do, especially when a faculty member selects topics that are relevant and about which he or she is passionate. taken together, these three spheres of influence represent an approach to help enhance the relevance and impact of business school education. using this integrated approach may help business schools and their faculties gain additional prominence in the eyes of stakeholders be they students, external organizations or managerial leaders looking for consumable friendly yet conceptually sound frameworks and tools.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  14  
  implications there are several implications that this integrated framework offers for business education and in particular business school faculty. first, by showing the ability to bring real world issues, problems, and practices into the classroom, student learners are more likely to see the relevance of the topics they are studying. second, by presenting field tested frameworks and tools to students, as in the example presented earlier, a faculty member’s credibility as a relevant resource with real world connections to business will likely be advanced. third, producing intellectual contributions that are relevant and impactful to the practice of business in organizational settings will bring value to business leaders and their companies while shining positive light on business school faculties and their institutions. this outcome is especially potent when these intellectual contributions are effectively imported into the business school classroom through engaging and interactive experiential activities that proximate what student learners face on the firing line at work and in their careers. fourth, this article can help bridge the divide between academics (those who research and teach in academia) and business practitioners (those in the world of managerial leadership and business practice). this could then advance the achievement of goals set forth by aacsb in their final report of the aacsb international impact of research task force (aacsb, 2008) and their adopted accreditation standards for schools of business (aacsb, 2010; 2013). this seems especially true since the latter document indicates that management education must put students in a position to add value to their organizations. fifth, the important dynamic relationship between relevance and impact as presented here may encourage research relating to learning outcomes and teacher effectiveness along these two dimensions. it would be very helpful to know what teaching practices,  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  15  
  for example, are associated with relevant and impactful pedagogy. finally, the framework offered here is arguably the right thing to do. it provides value to practitioners in the field, offers business school students an engaging and useful learning experience, and documents scholarpractitioner interaction in practitioner consumable outlets that are relevant and impactful in advancing academic and business leader objectives. approaches like the one suggested here can offer a method to help the academy operationalize academic excellence in a way that benefits academics, practitioners and other key stakeholders. beyond the actions of individual faculty members, business school leaders are encouraged to help operationalize this framework for academic excellence. supportive efforts in helping faculty strive for the “sweet spot” or intersection of business connections/practice, intellectual contributions and teaching may include encouraging faculty to:  facilitate action learning activities inside the classroom.  transfer classroom learning to workplace take aways and re-entry assignments.  use course materials that address relevant and current business practice topics.  join or actively participate in professional societies and/or selective associations in industries of interest.  publish in peer-reviewed practitioner/practice oriented journals or other venues directed at enhancing business and management practices.  present to business and management professionals.  develop useful tools and frameworks for companies within targeted industries.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  16      become board members of companies in targeted industries. teach executive education courses. apply the three spheres of influence framework to their scholarship. summary statement  in general, finding the intersection of business practice, intellectual contribution and teaching in business education, and more specifically helping business school faculty to do so, is a challenging proposition. however, striving for academic excellence as described in this article may help calm some of the voices suggesting that business education and schools of business, in particular, are lacking in real world relevance and impact. this article, while acknowledging various critical points of view, offers a framework to help advance the relevance, impact and value proposition offered by business schools, especially their faculty, to the practice of business. it is hoped that readers will be encouraged to innovatively and assertively explore ways to integrate business practice, intellectual contributions and business school teachings for the betterment of all stakeholders and society. having faculty members strive for academic excellence using the three spheres of influence framework offered here seems to be a desirable and productive way to help advance business education’s relevance and impact. references association to advance collegiate schools of business international. (2008). final report of the aacsb international impact of research task force. retrieved from http://www.aacsb.edu. association to advance collegiate schools of business international. (2010). eligibility procedures and accreditation standards for business accreditation. retrieved from http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/business.standards.pdf.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  17  
  association to advance collegiate schools of business international. (2013). aacsb 2013 business accreditation standards: new impact metrics covering all core business of impactelligent business schools, research, engagement and teaching. retrieved from http://www.aacsb.edu/accreditation/business/standards2013.20 13businessstandards.pdf benjamin, b. & o’reilly, c. (2011). becoming a leader: early career challenges faced by mba graduates. academy of management learning & education. 10(3), 452-472. bennis, w.g. & o’toole, j. (2005). how business schools lost their way. harvard business review. may, 96-104. berggren, c. & soderlund. (2011). management education for practicing managers: combining academic rigor with personal change and organizational action. journal of management education. 35(3), 377-405. boyer, e.l. (1990). scholarship reconsidered: priorities of the professoriate. princeton, nj: carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. brewer, p.d. & brewer, k.l. (2010). knowledge management, human resource management and higher education: a theoretical model. journal of education for business. 85, 330-335. brown, k.g., charlier, s.d., rynes, s.l. & hosmanek, a. (2013). what do we teach in organizational behavior? an analysis of mba syllabi. journal of management education. 37(4), 447-471. butler, d., forbes, b. & johnson, l. (2008). an examination of a skillsbased leadership coaching course in an mba program. journal of education for business. 83, 227-232. church, a.h. (2011). bridging the gap between the science and practice of psychology in organizations: state of the practice reflections. journal of business psychology. 26, 125-128. clineball, s.k. & clineball, j.m. (2008). the tension in business education between academic rigor and real-world relevance: the role of executive professors. academy of management learning & education. 7(1), 99-107. cohen, m. & billsberry, j. (2013). making progress by glancing backward: celebrating the introduction of the review article to the field of management education. journal of management education. 37(4), 439-446. conger, j.a. (2004). developing leadership capability: what’s inside the black box? academy of management executive. 18, 136-139. garman, a.n. (2011). shooting for the moon: how academicians could make management research even more irrelevant. journal of business psychology. 26, 129-133. geuens, m. (2011). where does business research go from here? food – for- thought on academic papers in business research. journal of business research. 64, 1104-1107. ghoshal, s.l. (2005). bad management theories are destroying good management practices. academy of management learning and education. 4(1), 75-91. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  18  
  haskins, m.e. & clawson, j.g. (2005). how to facilitate the transfer of executive education experiences back to the workplace. journal of management development. 25(9), 850-869. kerns, c.d. (2002). an entrepreneurial approach to strategic direction setting. business horizons. july-august, 2-6. kerns, c.d. (2013). clarity of purpose and meaningfulness at work: key leadership practices. international leadership journal. 5(1), 27-44. mintzberg, h. (2004). managers not mbas: a hard look at the soft practice of managing and management development. san francisco, ca: berrett-koehler. kirkpatrick, d.l. & kirkpatrick, j.d. (2006). evaluating training programs: the four levels, (3rd edition). san francisco, ca: berrettkoehler. paglis, l.l. (2013). a review of managerial skills training in the classroom. journal of management education. 37(4). 472-498. pearce, j.l. & huang, l. (2012). the decreasing value of our research on management education. academy of management learning & education. 11(2), 247-262. pfeffer, j. & fong, c.t. (2002). the end of business schools? less success than meets the eye. academy of management learning and education. 1(1), 78-95. phillips, j.j. (2003). return on investment in training and performance improvement programs, (2nd edition). burlington, ma: butterworth-heineman. porter, l. & mckibbin, l. (1988). management education and development: drift or thrust into the 21st century. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill. rapert, m.i., velliquette, a., smith, s. & garretson, j.a. (2004). the meaning of quality: expectations of students in pursuit of an mba. journal of education for business. 79, 17-24. reeve, j., & jang, h. (2006). what teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. journal of educational psychology, 91, 537-548. rubin, r.s. & dierdorff (2013). building a better mba: from a decade of critique toward a decennium of creation. academy of management learning & education, 12(1), 125-141. schneberger, s., pollard, c., & watson, h. (2009). theories: for academics and practitioners. information systems management. 26(1), 52-60. thomas, h. & cornuel, e. (2012). business schools in transition? issues of impact, legitimacy, capabilities and re-invention. journal of management development. 31(4), 329-336. tushman, m.l., o’reilly, c.a., fenollosa, a., kleinbaum, a.m. & mcgarth, d. (2007). relevance and rigor: executive education as a lever in shaping practice and research. academy of management learning & education. 6(3), 345-362.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  19  
  wellborn, c.a. & singer, m.g. (2013). operations management: is there a disconnect between college textbook content and employer needs? journal of education for business. 88, 1-7. yip, j. & raelin, j.a. (2011). threshold concepts and modalities for teaching leadership practice. management learning. 43(3), 333-354.  dr. charles kerns is a professor of applied behavioral science at the graziadio school of business and management. he has more than 30 years of business, management, and consulting experience. through his private consulting firm, corperformance, he has implemented management and organizational development programs and systems to help companies from many industries maximize their results. since 1980, he has taught in almost every program in the graziadio school, first as an adjunct faculty member, then, since 2000, as a member of the full-time faculty. he has also served as the associate dean for academic affairs. dr. kerns holds a diplomate, abpp, in both industrial-organizational psychology and organizational-business consulting psychology. he earned his ph.d. from the university of maryland. his research and work focuses on helping managerial leaders and their organizations boost performance utilizing behavioral science frameworks and tools.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  20  
  fair value’s affect on accounting’s ability to predict future cash flows1 keji chen, california state university, northridge ramachandran ramanan, university of notre dame gregory a. sommers, southern methodist university gary k. taylor, university of alabama  abstract this study assesses the ability of the outputs from an accounting system to predict future cash flows. specifically, we focus on a “complete fair value” accounting system’s ability to predict future cash flows as compared to the predictive ability of an accounting system implementing a variety of accounting attributes (including, for example, historical cost and fair value, among others). we find that the outputs from an accounting system implementing a variety of accounting attributes has greater information content for future cash flows than the outputs from a “complete fair value” accounting system. the results of this study imply that moving toward a fair value accounting system may reduce accounting data’s predictive ability for future cash flows.  introduction this study assesses the ability of the earnings and book value of equity derived from two different financial accounting systems to predict future cash flows. the two different accounting systems used in this study are (1) the accounting system based on the implementation of current accounting standards (hereafter referred to as a mixed attribute accounting system) and (2) mar-  1  the comments of peter easton, robert ingram, stephen penman, mary stone, and workshop participants at the university of alabama, the university of washington, and the virginia commonwealth university are greatly appreciated. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  21  
  ket data where the market data is utilized as a proxy for a “complete fair value” accounting system.2, 3, 4 while “fair value measurement” has a variety of meanings and definitions, it appears that the iasb is inherently using “market value” as its definition of fair value.5 the iasb specifically discusses “exit value” as its measure of fair value but as this term is utilized by the iasb, “exit value” will often equal market value (penman, richardson, and tuna [2007]). one may argue that the iasb does not intend for a “complete fair value” system to be implemented. however, the iasb has noted that many if not all of the assets and liabilities currently recorded under a different accounting system (such as historical cost) will be recorded under fair value accounting under certain circumstances. a listing of the standards that will be affected by fair value measurement can be found at http://www.iasplus.com/agenda/fairvalue.htm. specifically included in this listing are the following two standards: ias 16 (property, plant and equipment) and ias 38 (intangible assets).  2  we characterize a mixed attribute accounting system as one that incorporates the generally accepted accounting principles (gaap) in place at the year-end in which earnings and book value of equity were measured. a mixed attribute accounting system utilizes historical cost accounting, systematic allocation, fair value recognition, as well as non-recognition, among others. 3 in this study, we use the phrase “complete fair value” accounting system to describe an accounting system where all assets and liabilities are measured utilizing fair value accounting. 4 as noted in penman, richardson, and tuna [2007], “if all assets and liabilities were accounted for using unbiased mark-to-market or “fair value” accounting, b/p ratios would be equal to unity for all levels of risk (and the b/p ratio could not indicate risk).” (p. 429) 5 see ernst & young – assurance - ifrs – “how fair is fair value” at http://www.anc.gouv.fr/sections/la_recherche_a_l_anc/1ers_etats_g eneraux/a_wilson_how_fair_is/downloadfile/file/a_wilson_how_fair_is _fair_value.pdf?nocache 1292609799.42. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  22  
  we find that, on average, a mixed attribute accounting system outperforms a “complete fair value” accounting system in predicting future cash flows, possessing both greater relative and incremental information content. this finding highlights a potential cost of the current movement towards fair value accounting. that is, a mixed attribute accounting system is more likely to meet financial accounting’s predictive objective than a “complete fair value” accounting system.6 in this study, we utilize market price and the change in price plus dividends as reasonable proxies for the reported values of book value of equity and earnings under a “complete fair value” accounting system. 7 in essence, this market data is utilized as the equity and earnings that would be reported under a “complete fair value” accounting system.8 throughout this paper, it is important to remember that under this application of a fair value accounting system, the book value of equity is equal to the market value of equity. 9 in addition, income is the change in value exclusive of dividends; in other words, income equals the market return in dollars. the next section describes the sample characteristics. subsequently, we discuss the research design. we then review the relative and incremental explanatory power between the two accounting systems, followed by a summary and concluding comments.  6  this is consistent with the findings of hann, heflin, and subramanayam [2007]. their findings suggest that there “...are no informational benefits to adopting a fair-value pension accounting model.” (p.328) 7 while using price and returns as proxies may introduce measurement error, there is no reason to expect any systematic bias to result. 8 reported market data under a “complete fair value” accounting system could differ from that currently observed under the mixed attribute accounting system. however, systematic differences creating bias due to using the reported data are not expected. 9 see penman, richardson, and tuna [2007]. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  23  
  sample description using this concept of “complete fair value” accounting, book value will be reporting the fair value of shareholders’ equity, that is, the market capitalization; and income will be reporting the change in the fair value of shareholders’ equity plus dividends. in essence, fair value income is the change in market capitalization plus dividends or cum-dividend dollar return. this construct allows for the utilization of outputs from the two different accounting systems – reported book value of equity and income from the currently employed mixed attribute accounting system and market capitalization and cum-dividend return from the as-if “complete fair value” accounting system. all variables except returns (from the crsp monthly stocks database) are obtained exclusively from the crsp/compustat merged industrial annual database. dollarretjt is computed as cum-dividend rate of return (crsp ret) of firm j for year t times beginning of year market capitalization; that is, the dollar return on the stock for year t. market capitalization (mcjt) is calculated as compustat data item prcc_f multiplied by item csho of firm j for year t. compustat data item ceq is utilized as the book value of equity (bvjt) of firm j for year t. earningsjt (compustat data item ib) represents income before extraordinary items of firm j for year t. ocfjt 1 is the operating cash flow of firm j for the year of t 1 calculated similar to the cash flow from operations defined in dechow [1994].10 10  similar to dechow [1994, p. 16], ocfjt 1 operating income before depreciation (compustat data item oibdp) – interest (compustat data item xint) – taxes (compustat data item txt) – change in accounts receivable (compustat data item rect) – change in inventory (compustat data item invt) – change in other current assets (compustat data item aco) change in accounts payable (compustat data item ap) change in tax payable (compustat data item txp) change in other current liabilities (compustat data item lco). the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  24  
  the full sample covers the 20 years from 1984 to 2003 and contains all firm-year observations with nonmissing dollarretjt, mcjt, bvjt, earningsjt, and ocfjt 1. firms with non- december fiscal-year-end are deleted.11 observations with values of any of the five regression variables in the top or bottom 1% of the annual distributions are winsorized. the full sample consists of 48,394 firm-year observations ranging from 1,749 in 1985 to 3,049 in 1997.12 table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the full sample. similar to results documented in previous studies (e.g., barth, cram and nelson [2001] and kim and kross [2005]), and probably due to non-cash expenses such as depreciation and amortization, subsequent operating cash flows (ocft 1) typically exceeds income before extraordinary items (earningst). both the mean and median book value of equity (bvt) are significantly smaller than the mean and median market capitalization (mct). research design we compare the predictive ability of “complete fair value” accounting to the predictive ability of current mixed attribute accounting by examining the relative and incremental information content between “complete fair value” accounting and future cash flows to the corresponding association between current mixed attribute accounting and future cash flows. indications that the predictive ability of accounting for future cash 11  relaxing this restriction to include non-december fiscal-year-end firms yields a sample of 83,354 observations. the untabulated results are similar to those presented in this study. 12 we also examine a constant sample of 372 firms that are in the full sample in every of the 20 years to address the issue that the results may be driven by the changes in the sample composition over time. the untabulated results are similar to those presented in this study. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  25  
  flows will be lowered if “complete fair value” accounting is achieved occur if we find (1) the current mixed attribute accounting system possesses incremental information content over the “complete fair value” accounting system, (2) the “complete fair value” accounting system does not possess incremental information content over the current mixed attribute accounting system, and most importantly (3) the relative information content is higher for the current mixed attribute accounting system. the first two will be tested using tstatistics (f-statistics) in the simple (multiple) annual regressions and the third will be tested using vuong [1989] z-statistics. it is important to remember that under “complete fair value” accounting, book value will be reporting the fair value of shareholders’ equity, that is, the market capitalization, and income will be reporting the change in the fair value of shareholders’ equity plus dividends, that is, the change in market capitalization plus dividends or cum-dividend return. therefore, we test the ability of fair value accounting data (i.e., market data) to predict future cash flows by examining the association of market capitalizations and cum-dividend returns with subsequent cash flows.13 we now estimate the ability of the “stock” and “flow” variables jointly to predict future operating cash flows. we do this with the following three multiple regressions (variables are as previously defined in section 2): 13  it is arguable whether the market capitalization with “complete fair value” accounting information would have been the same as the market capitalization with current mixed attribute accounting information. however, since the market capitalization with “complete fair value” accounting information is unobservable, it seems intuitive to assume that, on average, the market capitalization with “complete fair value” accounting or with current mixed attribute accounting would be the same, and to use the observed market capitalization as a proxy for the fair value of shareholders’ equity. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  26  
  ocfjt 1 1 2 bv jt 3 earnings jt jt (1)  ocfjt 1 1 4 mc jt 5 dollarret jt jt (2)  ocfjt 1 1 2 bv jt 3 earnings jt  4 mc jt 5 dollarret jt jt (3) as easton and sommers [2003] point out, levels regressions potentially suffer from scale issues. to mitigate scale issues, we estimate all equations using weighted least squares to deflate by market capitalization (mcjt) as suggested by easton and sommers [2003]. this method does not affect inferences or interpretations of the regression output but removes the scale effect of large firms having undue influence on the regression. relative and incremental explanatory power between the two accounting systems the predictive ability of both “stock and flow” variables are presented in table 2. the “stock and flow” variables from the currently employed mixed attribute accounting system (bvt and earningst) has a significantly higher relative explanatory power (vuong [1989] zstatistic 4.633, p-value 0.01) over the “stock and flow” variables from the “complete fair value” accounting system (mct and dollarrett). earningst (t-statistic 5.29), bvt (t-statistic 10.81), and mct (t-statistic 7.76) have statistically significant incremental explanatory power over each other. consistent with prior results, dollarrett does not have incremental explanatory power (t-statistic 1.14). earningst has significant incremental explanatory power (at the 5% level) in 13 of the 20 years  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  27  
  while dollarrett has significant incremental explanatory power in only 7 of the 20 years. these results imply that the accounting data from a “complete fair value” accounting system does not have a higher predictive ability (where we define predictability as the association between current period accounting data and future cash flows) relative to the current mixed attribute accounting system. this relationship has not been previously considered and represents a potential cost of moving toward fair value accounting that must be weighed against the potential benefits. conclusion most of the current discussions related to the fair value accounting movement center around the relevance and reliability of the reported values. proponents argue that the relevance of financial reporting would increase under fair value accounting, while opponents contend that the reliability of financial reporting would decrease. in the current study, rather than focusing on the characteristics of relevance and reliability, we address the issue of moving toward fair value accounting based on a main factor of financial reporting as stated in the statement of financial accounting concepts no. 8 – to help predicting future net cash inflows. we show that the association between future cash flows and “complete fair value” accounting data (market capitalization and dollar return) is significantly lower than the association between future cash flows and current mixed attribute accounting numbers (book value and earnings). that is, achieving “complete fair value” accounting appears to reduce the ability of financial accounting to predict future operating cash flows. this is not surprising since returns (the income number under “complete fair value” accounting) contain higher unexpected (transitory) portion, which may not be reasonathe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  28  
  ble predictors for expected future cash flows, than earnings. the fact that current mixed attribute accounting has more explanatory power for future cash flows than the “complete fair value” numbers indicates that achieving fair value accounting, although (possibly) increasing relevance may result in a reduction in the predictive ability. whether the benefit of increasing relevance outweighs the cost of a reduction in the predictive ability is beyond the scope of this paper. table 1: summary descriptive statistics the table presents means of annual amounts for 48,394 observations over the period 1984 to 2003 with all variables in millions. observations are required to have december fiscal-year-end and non-missing ocfjt 1, earningsjt, dollarretjt, bvjt, and mcjt where: ocfjt 1 is the operating cash flow of firm j for year t 1 calculated similar to the cash flow from operations defined in dechow [1994] (ocfjt 1 operating income before depreciation (compustat data item oibdp) – interest (compustat data item xint) – taxes (compustat data item txt) – change in accounts receivable (compustat data item rect) – change in inventory (compustat data item invt) – change in other current assets (compustat data item aco) change in accounts payable (compustat data item ap) change in tax payable (compustat data item txp) change in other current liabilities (compustat data item lco)), earningsjt is income before extraordinary items of firm j for year t (compustat data item ib), dollarretjt is the cum-dividend rate of return (crsp ret) of firm j for year t times beginning of year market capitalization; that is, the dollar return on the stock for year t,  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  29  
  bvjt is the book value of equity of firm j at the end of year t (compustat data item ceq), and mcjt is the market capitalization of firm j at the end of year t (compustat data item prcc_f item csho). observations with values of any of the five regression variables in the top or bottom 1% of the annual distributions are winsorized. mean  std. dev.  25th pct  median  75th pct  ocft 1 earningst  160.12 81.05  2,115.33 521.78  -0.94 -2.97  8.77 3.71  74.04 33.67  dollarrett  162.30  2,544.51  -37.92  7.05  84.69  bvt  754.53  2,866.63  16.65  75.26  358.23  mct  2,010.96  8,551.56  34.27  153.01  806.06  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  30  
  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  31  
  references barth, m. e., d. p. cram, and k. k. nelson. 2001. “accruals and the prediction of future cash flows.” the accounting review 76 (january): 27-58. dechow, p. m. 1994. “accounting earnings and cash flows as measures of firm performance: the role of accounting accruals.” journal of accounting and economics 18 (july): 3-42. easton, p. d. and g. a. sommers. 2003. “scale and the scale effect in market-based accounting research.” journal of business finance & accounting 30 (january): 25-55. hann, r. n., f. heflin, and k. r. subramanayam. 2007. “fair-value pension accounting.” journal of accounting and economics 44 (december): 328-358. kim, m. and w. kross. 2005. “the ability of earnings to predict future operating cash flows has been increasing—not decreasing.” journal of accounting research 43 (december): 753-780. penman, s. h., s. a. richardson, and i. tuna. 2007. “the book-toprice effect in stock returns: accounting for leverage.” journal of accounting research 45 (may): 427-467. vuong, q. h. 1989. “likelihood ratio tests for model selection and non-nested hypotheses.” econometrica 57: 307-333.  dr. keji chen is an assistant professor at california state university, northridge, and serves as a faculty advisor to the csun accounting association. he obtained his ph. d. in accounting and management information systems from the ohio state university. prior to joining cal state northridge, he taught at the university of alabama and university of washington – bothell. his research interest is empirically examining the relation and implication between accounting information and the capital market. he has taught courses such as accountingbased valuation, intermediate accounting, introductory financial accounting and introductory managerial accounting. dr. chen was voted the accounting professor of the year (20122013) at cal state northridge. dr. ramachandran ramanan currently serves as professor of accountancy at the university of notre dame. he conducts empirical research on economics-based implications of issues relating to choice of accounting methods of firms; the relationship between incentives, reporting choices, and real decisions by management; and the information captured by insider trading and accounting measurement systems. dr. ramanan has published a number of articles in refereed academic jourthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  32  
  nals, such as the accounting review, journal of accounting and economics, management science, contemporary accounting research, journal of accounting, auditing and finance, and others. he obtained his ph.d. in accounting and information systems at northwestern university in 1986. prior to joining notre dame in 1991, he taught at unc-chapel hill and northwestern university. dr. gary taylor is an associate professor at the culverhouse school of accountancy at the university of alabama. he is the director of the culverhouse school of accountancy ph. d. program and the faculty sponsor of beta alpha psi. he holds a ph. d. in accounting and management information systems from the ohio state university and is a licensed certified public accountant. dr. taylor has published in several academic journals including journal of accounting research, journal of accounting, auditing, and finance, journal of accounting literature, journal of the american tax association, and review of accounting studies. dr. taylor has taught numerous accounting courses including introductory and intermediate accounting courses, accounting based valuation courses, ph. d. seminars, and executive mba courses. dr. gregory a. sommers is director of the masters in accounting program and professor of practice in accounting at southern methodist university in dallas, texas. he holds a ph.d. in accounting and management information systems from the ohio state university and is a licensed certified public accountant. dr. sommers has published journal articles in the journal of accounting research and journal of business, finance and accounting. he is co-author of financial statement analysis and valuation published by cambridge business publishers and is currently writing another text on accountingbased valuation. he has taught courses such as accountingbased valuation, financial statement analysis, intermediate accounting and principles of accounting.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  33  
  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  34  
  the dark side of leadership: measurement, assessment, and intervention jim mccleskey, north american university  abstract this manuscript addresses derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism individually, discusses the assessment of dark leadership, and describes various strategies intended to address dark leadership in organizational settings. kellerman (2004) suggested that despite decades of unconditional positive regard toward leaders and leadership, “flawed leaders are everywhere” (p. 41), and in many cases, bad or unworthy individuals hold leadership positions successfully. the multifaceted study of these leaders and their behavior is dark leadership. dark leadership encompasses the concepts of derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism. the research conducted over the past five years, along with a hand full of seminal sources presented here, describe the empirical work on dark leadership within these three facets.  the dark side of leadership: measurement, assessment, and intervention boddy, ladyshewski, and galvin (2010) stated, “leadership tends to be written about as if it were always positive, ethical, and good” (p. 125). however, kellerman (2004) suggested that despite decades of unconditional positive regard toward leaders and leadership, “flawed leaders are everywhere” (p. 41), and in many cases, bad or unworthy individuals hold leadership positions successfully. the multifaceted study of these leaders and their behavior is dark leadership. dark leadership encompasses the concepts of derailment (burke, 2006; hogan & hogan, 2001; 2002), narcissism the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  35  
  (conger, 1990; 2002; higgs, 2009; maccoby, 2004), and machiavellianism (judge, piccolo, & kosalka, 2009; tepper, 2000; 2007). the research conducted over the past five years, along with a hand full of seminal sources presented here, describe the empirical work on dark leadership within these three facets. while the majority of empirical literature viewed these facets individually, a few scholars also attempted consolidation of dark leadership (padilla, hogan, & kaiser, 2007; paulhus & williams, 2002); however, to date those attempts yielded no fruitful outcomes, and the researchers investigating dark leadership continued to follow disparate paths (higgs, 2009). this manuscript addresses derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism individually, discusses the assessment of dark leadership, and describes various strategies intended to address dark leadership in organizational settings. the discussion begins with leader derailment. dark leadership as derailment several scholars characterized leader derailment as dark leadership (conger, 1990; burke, 2006; kets de vries & balazs, 2011). conger (1990; 2002) attributed derailment to problems of vision, impressionmanagement, and general management. leaders who emphasize their personal vision at the expense of the organization’s health, demonstrate poor general management capabilities, and possess poor interpersonal skills, engender dark leadership outcomes. burke (2006) argued that derailment manifests in several ways. leaders reach a plateau of development and fail to progress, leaders receive demotion or termination, or leaders fail to achieve organizational objectives unexpectedly. researchers attempt to understand derailment in an effort to prevent derailment (burke, 2006). derailment studies approached derailment in relation to a variety of factors.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  36  
  derailment studies examined destructive leaders’ behaviors (aasland, skogstad, notelars, nielsen, & einarsen, 2010; reed & bullis, 2009; shaw, ericksen, & harvey, 2011), derailment likelihood (gentry & shanock, 2008; dai, de meuse, & gaeddert, 2011; zhang & chandrasekar, 2011), leader personality traits (harms, spain, & hannah, 2011), and viewed derailment as a “special case of organizational failure” (capretta, clark, & dai, 2008, p. 48). studies aimed at leader derailment sorted leaders into constructive versus destructive types (aasland et al., 2010), examined derailment antecedents such as functional orientation and interpersonal skill (gentry & shanock, 2008), correlated derailment with personality traits (harms et al., 2011), and created predictive behavioral taxonomies (shaw et al., 2011). each of these represented unique conceptual approaches to derailment. while the current empirical work is inconclusive about the correct definition, approach, or methods to address derailment, each of these approaches shares a common theme: identify derailment in order to prevent its occurrence. derailment is universally negative and researchers from each approach called for “reducing derailment potential” (zhang & chandrasekar, 2011, p. 38). this universally negative view constitutes one key difference between derailment, and both narcissism and machiavellianism. researchers noted positive aspects of narcissism (kets de vries & engellau, 2010; maccoby, 2004) and machiavellianism (den hartog & belschak, 2012; kessler et al., 2010). the empirical studies on leader derailment mentioned above contained strengths and weaknesses. a number of weaknesses were present in these derailment studies and provided evidence that derailment lacks a common definition, well-established instruments, longitudinal studies, or a long history of construct development (harms et al., 2011). in contrast to those weaknesses, several studies represented strong quantitative work featuring large sample sizes, sophistithe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  37  
  cated statistical analyses, and thoughtful theoretical constructions (aasland et al., 2010; gentry & shanock, 2008; harms et al., 2011). derailment constitutes an area of vital interest for organizational success and derailment is more than just ineffective leadership, it is a facet of dark leadership (zhang & chandrasekar, 2011). the next section examines another facet of dark leadership, narcissism. dark leadership as narcissism narcissism lies at the heart of dark leadership, indeed narcissism lies at the heart of leadership itself (kets de vries & balazs, 2011). judge et al. (2009) suggested that narcissistic leaders exhibit a variety of negative characteristics including self-absorption, self-love, entitlement, hostility, arrogance, and a superficial view of themselves. accordingly, they are typically unpopular with followers (judge et al., 2009). while many scholars discussed the negative aspects of narcissism, some researchers argued for positive aspects of narcissism (godkin & allcorn, 2011; kets de vries & balazs, 2011; kets de vries & engellau, 2010; maccoby, 2004). for example, maccoby (2004) described narcissistic leaders’ weaknesses (pp. 97-98), and their strengths, noting that narcissistic leaders are often useful, productive, inspiring figures who are able to find and create meaning, and leave a lasting legacy (pp. 93-94). godkin and allcorn (2011) presented a continuum of leader characteristics ranging from healthy narcissism to arrogant narcissism. bass (2008) argued that while narcissism can be a force for good, more typically it leads to the exploitation of followers, a sense of entitlement and privilege, apathy, and the absence of empathy. the work of these scholars (godkin & allcorn, 2011; kets de vries & engellau, 2010; maccoby, 2004) pointed to the complex nature of narcissism as a factor that both aids and restrains the effective leader. the next section describes of a number of recent studies on narcissism. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  38  
  studies examined narcissism in relation to follower feedback and performance ratings (blair, hoffman, & helland, 2008), ceo risk-taking (chatterjee & hambrick, 2011), organizational success factors and outcomes (hochwarter & thompson, 2012; resick, whitman, weingarden, & hiller, 2009), organizational resistance (godkin & allcorn, 2011), and short term and long-term costs and benefits (campbell & campbell, 2009). while generally connected to negative organizational outcomes, a number of studies demonstrated positive or neutral effects of leader narcissism (blair et al., 2008; campbell & campbell, 2009; chatterjee & hambrick, 2011; resick et al., 2009). in contrast to the diverse approaches to derailment as dark leadership, studies approached narcissism as a personality trait or individual difference exclusively. the preceding studies represent a sample of the current literature on narcissism and provide evidence that the relationship between narcissism and leadership is complex. narcissism contains both positive and negative effects for organizations, prompting the title of one often-cited article, “narcissistic leaders: the incredible pros, the inevitable cons” (maccoby, 2004). a further clarification of the role of narcissism in leadership requires additional empirical work. the next section presents another facet of dark leadership, machiavellianism, abusiveness, and psychopathy. dark leadership as machiavellianism, abusiveness, or psychopathy leaders guilty of machiavellianism employ lies, manipulation, coercion, and force to motivate followers and may demonstrate a talent for influencing others (judge et al, 2009). machiavellianism closely relates to the concepts of abusive and psychopathic leadership. boddy (2011) explored psychopathy and the concept of corporate psychopathy as a subclinical designations, i.e. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  39  
  psychopathy in this context refers to those operating with psychopathic traits below the level required for diagnosis as psychopaths (boddy, 2011; boddy et al., 2010). machiavellianism differs conceptually from leader derailment and narcissism. derailment may result from certain leader types (aasland et al., 2010), specific antecedents (gentry & shanock, 2008), or leader personality traits (harms et al., 2011). narcissism is a trait or characteristic of specific leaders (blair et al., 2008). in contrast, machiavellianism, abusive supervision, and psychopathy result exclusively from leaders’ behaviors. however, as noted for narcissism, some research reveals positive outcomes associated with machiavellianism (den hartog & belschak, 2012; kessler et al., 2010). the next section summarizes a number of recent studies on machiavellianism, abusiveness, and psychopathy. researchers examined the prevalence of psychopathy among organizational leaders (boddy, 2011; boddy et al., 2010), work engagement and perception of ethics (den hartog & belschak, 2012), subordinate perception of abuse (kiazad, restubog, zagenkzyk, kiewitz, & tang, 2010), psychopathy and emotional intelligence (lishner, swim, hong, & vitacco, 2011), workplace deviance (tepper et al., 2009), job satisfaction (reed & bullis, 2009), organizational knowledge sharing (liu, 2008), and employee creativity (liu, llao, & loi, 2012). additionally, several studies examined turnover intention (djurkovic, mccormack, & casimir, 2008; reed & bullis, 2009; tepper et al., 2009). another frequently studied dependent variable was workplace bullying (de cuyper, baillien, & de witte, 2009; djurkovic et al., 2008; einarsen, hoel, & notelars, 2009). these studies represent a sample of the current literature on machiavellianism, abusive supervision, and psychopathy. these diverse concepts converge in the dark leadership literature. machiavellian, abusive, or psychopathic leadership relates to negative organizational outcomes including poor follower perceptions (kiazad et al., 2010), coercive the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  40  
  behavior (den hartog & belschak, 2012), turnover intention (djurkovic et al., 2008), and workplace deviance (tepper et al., 2009). in addition to the empirical studies described above, two recent meta-analytical studies examined supervisor aggression and abusive supervision (herchovis, 2011; schyns & schilling, in press). while herschovis (2011) looked specifically at supervisor aggression in relation to other forms of workplace aggression, schyns and schilling (in press) examined the negative outcomes of abusive supervision including follower attitudes toward the leader, workplace deviance, job satisfaction, turnover intention, organizational commitment, stress, well-being, and job performance. these two statistical analyses strongly supported the relationship between dark leadership and negative organizational outcomes. however, previous research showed potentially positive outcomes, including perceived ethical behavior (den hartog & belschak, 2012) and effective emotional self-management (lishner et al., 2011) related to machiavellianism and psychopathy. once again, dark leadership proved complex and mixed empirical results continued to accumulate. a further clarification of the interaction between these components of dark leadership requires additional empirical work. the next section examines the scales and instruments used to measure dark leadership. dark leadership measurement and assessment the studies described above employed a variety of instruments to measure various dark leadership concepts. in addition, recent empirical work established several new measures for dark leadership. this section presents a brief description of several instruments. hogan and hogan (2001; 2002) developed the hogan development survey (hds) as a self-report, 154-item survey to assess derailment likelihood. the authors reported internal reliability scores (score range of .5 to .7 with an average score of .64) and test-retest reliabilities for the the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  41  
  instrument averaged .68 (hogan & hogan, 2001, p. 41). as noted previously, harms et al. found mixed results for the hds and the authors suggested that, “not only are the hds dimensions relatively unrelated, but the consistency of these effects across multiple raters and dimensions seem to indicate that these represent the true relationships” (2011, p. 505). vogt (2007) argued for cronbach alpha scores of at least .7 as evidence of internal reliability (p. 115). carmines and zeller (1979) suggested test-retest reliability scores above .80 for widely used instruments. while these two standards represent guidelines rather than codified rules, the hds fails to meet either one of these reliability guidelines. shaw et al. (2011) developed the destructive leadership questionnaire (dlq). creation of the instrument began with qualitative studies conducted by erickson, shaw, and agabe (2007). the resulting data categories included 11 subscales of bad leadership behavior. the resulting instrument comprised 11 scales. the final version contained 104 items. shaw et al. (2011) reported intercorrelations for all 127 items, results of a principle component analysis, additional factor analyses, and coefficient alphas for all scales (shaw et al., 2011). as a new instrument, limited reliability and validity data exists for the dlq. tepper et al. (2009) studied abusive supervision using tepper’s (2000) abusive supervision scale. the author utilized both a five-item and a 15-item version of the instrument (tepper et al., 2009). tepper et al. failed to include any data supporting the reliability and validity of either version of the instrument (2009). tepper (2000) describes the development of the scale but also presents little reliability data and no indication of validity. an additional review of the literature revealed no analytical review of the scale and no technical manual exists.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  42  
  the mach-iv is a 20-item inventory designed to measure machiavellianism (kessler et al., 2010). the mach-iv is the most commonly used instrument in the study of machiavellianism (den hartog & belschak, 2012; kessler et al., 2010; kiazad et al., 2010; paulhus & williams, 2002). internal reliability scores range from .60 to .70 (kessler et al., 2010) indicating minimally acceptable internal reliability (vogt, 2007). kessler et al. (2010) reported split-half reliability for the full scale at .79. this also constitutes a minimally reliable score (carmines & zeller, 1979). several researchers sharply criticized the mach-iv based on inconsistent reliability scores, lack of contextual focus, poor factor structure, ambiguous test items, and an entirely negative construction of machiavellianism (dahling, whitaker, & levy, 2009; kessler et al., 2010). based on the weaknesses of the mach-iv, both these groups of researchers (dahling et al., 2009; kessler et al., 2010) designed alternative measures of machiavellianism. dahling et al. (2009) developed the machiavellian personality scale (mps). the authors identified four factors within a hierarchical structure of machiavellianism. these factors include distrust of others, desire for status, desire for control, and amoral manipulation. dahling et al. (2009) described the development of the new instrument including its item and scale development, construct validity, discriminant validity, and reliability. the final scale included 44-items across four subscales. dahling et al. (2009) also included a lengthy discussion of the numerous applications of the new scale. in similar fashion, kessler et al. (2010) identified significant weaknesses in the mach-iv measure of machiavellianism. therefore, the authors developed the organizational machiavellianism scale (oms). kessler et al. (2010) viewed the construct of machiavellianism differently than other authors. specifically, kessler at al. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  43  
  (2010) developed their scale based on the concept of organizational machiavellianism included the possibility that not all machiavellianism behavior is negative. the resulting instrument contained 26-items comprised of three factors: maintaining power, management practices, and manipulativeness (kessler et al., 2010). the authors included information on the instrument’s scale construction, factor analysis, validity, and reliability. kessler et al. (2010) also examined several relationships that the mach-iv and prior research overlooked. these included “machiavellianism and the big five personality traits, machiavellianism and social skills, and machiavellianism and emotional intelligence” (p. 1876). while these instruments represent only a partial list, they point to a number of issues. creswell (2009) suggested that the accurate measurement of a construct requires effective instruments to measure the construct of interest, show evidence of established validity, and demonstrate reliability (creswell, 2009). the instruments used to measure dark leadership demonstrate issues with reliability and validity (e.g. hds), or lack acceptable levels of reliability and validity evidence (e.g. dlq). several are proprietary (e.g. tepper’s abusive supervision scale). further, several studies employed indirect measures of established constructs, ignoring available instruments (chatterjee & hambrick, 2011; resick et al., 2009). additionally, the most widely used and tenured instruments (e.g. machiv) are highly criticized and alternative instruments are under development (mps, oms). only one instrument described here, the oms, takes into account the evidence suggesting that positive aspects of dark leadership facets exist. scholars need to address these weaknesses in order to improve the empirical work in the field of dark leadership. the next section presents organizational strategies to address dark leadership.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  44  
  organizational strategies for addressing dark leadership a number of strategies exist to address dark leadership in organizations. broadly, strategies divide along selection and screening or leader interventions. these two approaches differ significantly. capretta et al. (2008) suggested that selection and screening attempt to prevent the organization from encountering dark leadership and are typically carried out by human resource departments or executive search firms. in contrast, intervention strategies attempt to mitigate or eliminate dark leadership behaviors after their occurrence appears within the organization. in both, awareness of the likelihood or occurrence of dark leadership is necessary in order to attempt the intervention or prevention. the next section presents screening and selection strategies. burke (2006) suggested that combatting dark leadership requires organizations to understand the issue, increase awareness, and undertake efforts to avoid dark leadership effects through improved selection and screening strategies. schaubroeck, walumbwa, ganster, and kepes (2007) suggested that selection strategies aimed at screening leadership candidates for positive personality traits (e.g. conscientiousness), and for screening out candidates with certain negative personality traits (e.g. hostility, neuroticism, and anxiety) can help avoid dark leadership and its negative workplace outcomes. however, using selection strategies to eliminate dark leadership behaviors in organizations proves a daunting task. organizations employ instruments such as the mach-iv in an attempt to identify dark leadership potential (kessler et al., 2010) while other instruments (e.g. hds) attempt to identify derailment potential in current employee leaders or potential leaders. hogan and hogan (2001) argued that leader derailment and destructive behaviors “coexist with strong social skills”, the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  45  
  making these leaders difficult to discover utilizing conventional forms of assessment (p. 50). the effective execution of selection strategies designed to discover and eliminate dark leaders and dark leadership behaviors may require additional training of organizational personnel. if the organization fails to screen out dark leaders during selection or promotion, direct intervention with the leader is required (hogan & hogan, 2001). the next section addresses direct intervention strategies. conger (1990) argued that organizations “can train, socialize, and manage future leaders in ways that will minimize their negative qualities” (p. 55). increased awareness, prevention, and intervention can mitigate dark leadership behaviors (conger 1990; 2002). interventions may take the form of therapy, coaching, feedback systems, or other strategies. maccoby (2004) recommended three strategies for dark leaders to improve their performance and avoid derailment. first, the leader finds a loyal and trusted sidekick. this individual is a trusted colleague who understands the leader, focuses on production and performance, communicates empathically, and functions effectively to keep the leader realistic and grounded. this recommendation could be formalized using mentor programs within the organization. second, the leader works to indoctrinate the entire organization with a common vision and frame of reference. this common vision helps the leader avoid derailment. third, the leader seeks therapy. maccoby argued that dark leaders required help with their feelings of “rage, alienation, and grandiosity” (2004, p. 100). other scholars also recommended that dark leaders receive psychoanalysis as an intervention strategy (schaubroeck et al., 2007). capretta et al. (2008) recommended other direct intervention strategies. capretta et al. (2008) recommended a variety of direct intervention strategies organizations could emthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  46  
  ploy against the negative outcomes associated with dark leadership. these included internal management coaching, third party executive coaching, 360 feedback surveys, and the use of other informal and formal feedback systems. while no single intervention is effective in all situations, organizations can develop intervention strategies based on the individual leader and context aimed at reduction or elimination of dark leadership behaviors (capretta et al., 2008). the last section of this manuscript contains a few final reflections on dark leadership. reflections on dark leadership the diverse facets of leader derailment, narcissism, and machiavellianism comprise dark leadership. the body of knowledge linking dark leadership and negative organizational outcomes continues to grow (aasland et al., 2010; chaterjee & hambrick, 2011; djurkovic et al., 2008; gentry & shanock, 2008; godkin & allcorn, 2011; hershcovis, 2011; kiazad et al., 2010; liu, 2008; liu et al., 2012; reed & bullis, 2009; schyns & schilling, in press; zhang & chandrasekar, 2011). additionally, a variety of contradictory evidence suggests a mixture of positive and negative organizational outcomes associate with narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy (den hartog & belschak, 2012; godkin & allcorn, 2011; kessler et al., 2010; kets de vries & engellau, 2010; lishner et al., 2011). despite a significant body of empirical work, the measurement of dark leadership constructs endures limited reliability and validity (aasland et al., 2010; shaw et al., 2011), the use of indirect or proprietary measures (tepper et al., 2009), and the development of new, unproven instruments (dahling et al., 2009; kessler et al., 2010). a variety of existing strategies address dark leadership in organizational settings including screening and selection (hogan & hogan, 2001; schaubroeck et al., 2007), and interventions designed to mitigate or reduce dark leadership behaviors (capretta the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  47  
  et al., 2008; maccoby, 2004; schaubroeck et al., 2007). interventions include mentoring, therapy, internal coaching, external coaching, and informal and formal feedback systems. the last five years of literature provides increasing evidence that dark leaders and dark leadership cause serious problems for followers, organizations and society (schyns & schilling, in press). dark leaders demonstrate the traits of narcissism and subclinical psychopathy, behave manipulatively (machiavellianism) or abusively, and may suffer unexpected failures (derailment). those who remain in positions of power and leadership bully their employees (de cuyper et al., 2009), increase employee turnover intention (djurkovic et al., 2008), lower employee job satisfaction (reed & bullis, 2009), and increase the occurrence of workplace deviance (tepper et al., 2009). johnson (2012) suggested that all leaders cast either light or shadow over their followers, and that both result from the tremendous capacity of leaders to influence the direction of followers’ lives. this fact and those discovered in the past five years of empirical work highlight the need for scholars to continue their study of the effects of dark leadership and the methods that address dark leadership in organizational settings. references aasland, m. s., skogstad, a., notelaers, g., nielsen, m. b., & einarsen, s. (2010). the prevalence of destructive leadership behaviour. british journal of management, 21(2), 438. doi:10.1111/j.14678551.2009.00672.x bass, b. m. (2008). the bass handbook of leadership: theory, research, & managerial applications (4th ed.). new york, ny: free press. bass, b. m., & riggio, r. e. (2006). transformational leadership (2nd ed.). new york, ny: psychology press. blair, c. a., hoffman, b. j., & helland, k. r. (2008). narcissism in organizations: a multisource appraisal reflects different perspectives. human performance, 21(3), 254-276. doi:10.1080/08959280802137705 boddy, c. (2011). corporate psychopaths, bullying and unfair supervision in the workplace. (no. 100).springer science & business media b.v. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0689-5 the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  48  
  boddy, c. r. p., ladyshewsky, r., & galvin, p. (2010). leaders without ethics in global business: corporate psychopaths. journal of public affairs, 10(3), 121-138. doi:10.1002/pa.352 burke, r. j. (2006). why leaders fail: exploring the dark side. international journal of manpower, 27(1), 91-100. doi:10.1108/01437720610652862 campbell, w. k., & campbell, s. m. (2009). on the self-regulatory dynamics created by the peculiar benefits and costs of narcissism: a contextual reinforcement model and examination of leadership. self and identity, 8(2-3), 214-232. doi:10.1080/15298860802505129 capretta, c., clark, l. p., & dai, g. (2008). executive derailment: three cases in point and how to prevent it. global business & organizational excellence, 27(3), 48-56. doi:10.1002/joe.20203 carmines, e. g., & zeller, r. a. (1979). reliability and validity assessment. thousand oaks, ca: sage. chatterjee, a., & hambrick, d. c. (2011). executive personality, capability cues, and risk taking: how narcissistic ceos react to their successes and stumbles. administrative science quarterly, 56(2), 202-237. doi:10.1177/0001839211427534 conger, j. a. (1990). the dark side of leadership. organizational dynamics, 19(2), 44-55. retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.capella.edu/login?url http://search.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?direct true&db bth&an  9607245405&site ehost-live&scope site conger, j. a. (2002, nov 29, 2002). danger of delusion the qualities that make leaders great can also cause their downfall. success and self-confidence often breed narcissism and a sense of infallibility. financial times, pp. 04-04. cooper, d. r., & schindler, p. s. (2011). business research methods (11th ed.). new york, ny: mcgraw-hill irwin. creswell, j. h. (2009). research design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). los angeles, ca: sage. dahling, j. j., whitaker, b. g., & levy, p. e. (2009). the development and validation of a new machiavellianism scale. journal of management, 35(2), 219-257. doi:10.1177/0149206308318618 dai, g., de meuse, k. p., & gaeddert, d. (2011). onboarding externally hired executives: avoiding derailment - accelerating contribution. journal of management & organization, 17(2), 165-178. doi:10.5172/jmo.2011.17.2.165 de cuyper, n., baillien, e., & de witte, h. (2009). job insecurity, perceived employability and targets' and perpetrators' experiences of workplace bullying. work & stress, 23(3), 206-224. doi:10.1080/02678370903257578 den hartog, d. n., & belschak, f. d. (2012). work engagement and machiavellianism in the ethical leadership process. journal of business ethics, 107(1), 35-47. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1296-4 djurkovic, n., mccormack, d., & casimir, g. (2008). workplace bullying and intention to leave: the moderating effect of perceived the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  49  
  organisational support. human resource management journal, 18(4), 405-422. doi:10.1111/j.1748-8583.2008.00081.x einarsen, s., hoel, h., & notelaers, g. (2009). measuring exposure to bullying and harassment at work: validity, factor structure and psychometric properties of the negative acts questionnairerevised. work & stress, 23(1), 24-44. doi:10.1080/02678370902815673 erickson, a., shaw, j. b., & agabe, z. (2007). an empirical investigation of the antecedents, behaviors, and outcomes of bad leadership. journal of leadership studies, 1(3), 26-43. doi:10.1002/jls.20023 gentry, w. a., & shanock, l. r. (2008). views of managerial derailment from above and below: the importance of a good relationship with upper management and putting people at ease. journal of applied social psychology, 38(10), 2469-2494. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00400.x godkin, l., & allcorn, s. (2011). organizational resistance to destructive narcissistic behavior. journal of business ethics, 104(4), 559570. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0930-x harms, p. d., spain, s. m., & hannah, s. t. (2011). leader development and the dark side of personality. leadership quarterly, 22(3), 495-509. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.04.007 hershcovis, m. s. (2011). incivility, social undermining, bullying...oh my! a call to reconcile constructs within workplace aggression research. journal of organizational behavior, 32, 499–519. higgs, m. (2009). the good, the bad and the ugly: leadership and narcissism. journal of change management, 9(2), 165-178. doi:10.1080/14697010902879111 hochwarter, w. a., & thompson, k. w. (2012). mirror, mirror on my boss’s wall: engaged enactment’s moderating role on the relationship between perceived narcissistic supervision and work outcomes. human relations, 65(3), 335-366. doi:10.1177/0018726711430003 hogan, r., & hogan, j. (2001). assessing leadership: a view from the dark side. international journal of selection & assessment, 9(1), 40. retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.capella.edu/login?url http://search.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?direct true&db aph&an  5053473&site ehost-live&scope site hogan, j., & hogan, r. (2002). leadership and sociopolitical intelligence. in r. e. riggio, s. e. murphy & f. j. pirozzolo (eds.), multiple intelligences and leadership (pp. 75-88). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. johnson, c. (2012). meeting the ethical challenges of leadership: casting light or shadow (4th ed.). new york, ny: sage. judge, t. a., piccolo, r. f., & kosalka, t. (2009). the bright and dark sides of leader traits: a review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. leadership quarterly, 20(6), 855-875. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.09.004 the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  50  
  kellerman, b. (2004). leadership warts and all. (cover story). harvard business review, 82(1), 40-45. retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.capella.edu/login?url http://search.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?direct true&db bth&an  11800915&site ehost-live&scope site kessler, s. r., bandelli, a. c., spector, p. e., borman, w. c., nelson, c. e., & penney, l. m. (2010). re-examining machiavelli: a threedimensional model of machiavellianism in the workplace. journal of applied social psychology, 40(8), 1868. doi:10.1111/j.15591816.2010.00643.x kets de vries, m., & balazs, k. (2011). the shadow side of leadership. in a. bryman, d. collinson, k. grint, b. jackson & m. uhl-bien (eds.), the sage handbook of leadership (pp. 380-392). thousand oaks, ca: sage. kets de vries, m., & engellau, e. (2010). a clinical approach to the dynamics of leadership and executive transformation. in n. nohria, & r. khurana (eds.), handbook of leadership theory and practice (pp. 183-222). boston, ma: harvard business press. kiazad, k., restubog, s. l. d., zagenczyk, t. j., kiewitz, c., & tang, r. l. (2010). in pursuit of power: the role of authoritarian leadership in the relationship between supervisors’ machiavellianism and subordinates’ perceptions of abusive supervisory behavior. journal of research in personality, 44(4), 512-519. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.06.004 lishner, d. a., swim, e. r., hong, p. y., & vitacco, m. j. (2011). psychopathy and ability emotional intelligence: widespread or limited association among facets? personality and individual differences, 50(7), 1029-1033. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.018 liu, c. c. (2008). the relationship between machiavellianism and knowledge sharing willingness. journal of business and psychology, 22(3), 233-240. doi:10.1007/s10869-008-9065-1 liu, d., llao, h., & loi, r. (2012). the dark side of leadership: a three-level investigation of the cascading effect of abusive supervision on employee creativity. academy of management journal, 55(5), 1187-1212. doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0400 maccoby, m. (2004). narcissistic leaders: the incredible pros, the inevitable cons. harvard business review, 82(1), 92-101. retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.capella.edu/login?url http://search.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?direct true&db bth&an  11801003&site ehost-live&scope site padilla, a., hogan, r., & kaiser, r. b. (2007). the toxic triangle: destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments. the leadership quarterly, 18(3), 176-194. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.001 paulhus, d. l., & williams, k. m. (2002). the dark triad of personality: narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy. journal of research in personality, 36(6), 556-563. doi:10.1016/s00926566(02)00505-6 the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  51  
  reed, g. e., & bullis, r. c. (2009). the impact of destructive leadership on senior military officers and civilian employees. armed forces & society, 36(1), 5-18. doi:10.1177/0095327x09334994 resick, c. j., whitman, d. s., weingarden, s. m., & hiller, n. j. (2009). the bright-side and the dark-side of ceo personality: examining core self-evaluations, narcissism, transformational leadership, and strategic influence. journal of applied psychology, 94(6), 1365-1381. doi:10.1037/a0016238 schaubroeck, j., walumbwa, f. o., ganster, d. c., & kepes, s. (2007). destructive leader traits and the neutralizing influence of an “enriched” job. the leadership quarterly, 18(3), 236-251. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.006 schyns, b., & schilling, j. (in press). how bad are the effects of bad leaders? a meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes. the leadership quarterly, doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001 shaw, j. b., erickson, a., & harvey, m. (2011). a method for measuring destructive leadership and identifying types of destructive leaders in organizations. the leadership quarterly, 22(4), 575590. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.05.001 tepper, b. j. (2000). consequences of abusive supervision. academy of management journal, 43(2), 178-190. doi:10.2307/1556375 tepper, b. j. (2007). abusive supervision in work organizations: review, synthesis, and research agenda. journal of management, 33(3), 261-289. retrieved from http://ezproxy.library.capella.edu/login?url http://search.ebsco host.com.library.capella.edu/login.aspx?direct true&db bth&an  25263441&site ehost-live&scope site tepper, b. j., carr, j. c., breaux, d. m., geider, s., hu, c., & hua, w. (2009). abusive supervision, intentions to quit, and employees’ workplace deviance: a power/dependence analysis. organizational behavior and human decision processes, 109(2), 156-167. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.03.004 vogt, w. p. (2007). quantitative research methods for professionals (custom ed.). new york, ny: learning solutions. zhang, y., & chandrasekar, n. a. (2011). when building strength is not enough: an exploration of derailment potential and leadership strength. journal of general management, 36(3), 37-51.  jim mccleskey teaches organizational behavior and marketing as an adjunct faculty member at north american university in houston, texas. his work experience includes over 20 years of progressive experience in organizational leadership roles and he currently works as the director of sales & marketing for the residential construction company bellar pools. jim’s areas of research interest include leadership, emotional intelligence, emotional labor, self-efficacy, and affect in organizational the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  52  
  settings. he holds an undergraduate degree in marketing from the university of texas at austin, a master’s degree in business administration from the bauer college of business at the university of houston, and has completed all the coursework and exams toward his phd in organization & management at capella university. his expected graduation date is 2014. he can be reached at jim.mccleskey@hotmail.com.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  53  
  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  54  
  meeting the needs of business: assessing market need and demand for a graduate level diversity concentration roxanne helm stevens, azusa pacific university mark dickerson, azusa pacific university  abstract this paper notes current workforce trends and considers how future leaders will be faced with managing multi-cultural work environments. the authors discuss the skills required for future leaders and propose a graduate level diversity concentration for equipping graduate business students to lead the organization and workforce of tomorrow. with this in mind, a research study was designed to discover the relationship between students’ perceptions and inclinations of pursuing a concentration within a master of arts in management program while simultaneously assessing which concentrations potential and current students would desire. in order to evaluate students’ perceptions, survey research was utilized to evaluate perceptions of current graduate and undergraduate business students towards three incentives (influence of job market outcomes, cost of required courses, and motivational factors) to pursuing a concentration. the goal is to statistically evaluate which construct is most responsible for students’ decisions to pursue a concentration, and further to determine the interest in obtaining a diversity concentration from the students’ perspective.  introduction as we enter the 21st century, effective management of multicultural working environments has become an important tool for business improvement and success in both national and international organizations. numerous research studies have demonstrated that diversity in the the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  55  
  workforce can better position employees and organizations to differentiate themselves in the marketplace and create innovative solutions to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse customer base. further, skilled diversity management can improve firm performance through increases in productivity and creativity and decreases in employee turnover. consequently, an urgent need exists for organizations to hire and retain professionals prepared with the requisite intercultural competence and process skills to lead in diverse environments. one approach to meet this urgent need is to encourage business schools to offer a diversity concentration as an integral part of its curriculum. however, a study of business schools in southern california universities by helm-stevens, hunt and wallace (2009), found only one institution with a diversity concentration and no institutions offering diversity degrees. given this lack of diversity concentrations and degrees, a private tuition-driven university based in southern california embarked on a study of demand for various graduate concentrations in its master’s of arts in management degree program. specifically, a study was designed to discover the relationship between student’s perceptions and inclinations of pursuing a concentration within the management program while simultaneously assessing which concentrations potential and current students would desire. in order to evaluate student’s perceptions, survey research was utilized including a sixpoint likert scale. the survey consisted of twenty questions separated into three constructs and a section of demographics. the student population participating in this study was enrolled at the university during the spring 2010 semester. the office of institutional research at the university (2010) claims 4163 full time undergraduate students, 63% female and 37% male, and 1915 graduate students, 60% female and 30% male. the 101 subjects who participated in this research reprethe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  56  
  sented current and prospective school of business and management graduate students. by evaluating perceptions of current graduate and undergraduate business students towards three measurable incentives of pursuing a concentration, the goal is to statistically evaluate which construct is most responsible for students’ decisions to pursue a concentration. and, further to determine the interest in obtaining a diversity concentration from the students’ perspective. we provide context for our study with a brief outline of the legal and demographic and market trends that motivated businesses to address diversity from a legal compliance perspective, moved to a focus on effective employee relations, and recently has become a necessity for those firms that aspire to success in the global marketplace. after laying the groundwork, we describe the methodology and findings of the research study and explore its implications for institutions considering the adoption of a degree concentration focused on managing issues of diversity. background the trend toward eliminating barriers that suppressed various minorities in america was largely fueled by the civil rights movement beginning after world war ii. while much of the initial focus was on combating white supremacy and providing equal opportunity for african-americans, the list of groups seeking equal treatment has grown to include women, native americans, hispanics, asians, old people, disabled people, gay people, aliens, individuals with unusual genes, and a host of others. the first legal blows for racial equality came from the united states supreme court, but the breakthrough came with sweeping legislation known as the civil rights act of 1964. title vii of the civil rights act of 1964 outthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  57  
  lawed discrimination in private employment based on an individual’s race, color, religion, sex or national origin and launched a federal agency, the equal employment opportunity commission (eeoc), to investigate charges of discrimination and take action to enforce the legislation. from this platform prohibiting discrimination stemmed numerous federal and state laws expanding the protections of equal employment legislation to other groups of employees. laws outlawing discrimination was not the only factor leading employers to increase diversity in their organizations. the desire to be good corporate citizens also led many corporations to foster diversity during the 1980’s. the emphasis was on awareness – the understanding and appreciation of human differences. the platform behind the ‘good corporate citizen’ approach was to create an environment where everyone was valued and accepted. organizations attempted to implement this through management education and training programs. but what corporations began to realize was there was possibly more of a reason to promote a diverse workforce that went beyond legal and ethical reasons – their economic self-interest. organizations, beginning to make the connection between diversity and organizational effectiveness, realized that creativity and decision-making could be enhanced by involving individuals with diverse perspectives and experiences, and that diverse workforces were a valuable asset in both marketing and providing customer service to women and minorities (levi, 2007; williams, 2005). organizations were able to be more sensitive to diverse markets through the insights of employees representing both genders and a variety of ethnic and socioeconomic groups. indeed, when lee childs, then director of equal opportunity and affirmative action programs at ibm, met with lou gerstner to pitch a dramatic change in ibm’s approach to workforce diversity, he couched his presentation in terms of connecting ibm to its customers. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  58  
  “childs asserted that to better connect to the marketplace, ibm has to look like its customers—at every level of the company. more importantly, the company needed to create conditions that allowed that cultural diversity to become a resource for learning about competing for clients.” (thomas & kanji, 2004, p. 5). as globalization began to gain momentum, the necessity for firms to work with diverse groups of people in order to compete in a globally inclusive market became increasingly apparent. additionally, corporations began to recognize that individuals from diverse backgrounds bring valuable perspectives, differences, and experiences to all aspects of corporate decision-making—from operations to marketing, to communications, to human resources. demographics feeding this move toward cultural diversity in the workplace are changes in the labor pool and the customer base. as population migration has increased, firms are hiring from a diverse employee pool. as norma tombari, an executive with the royal bank of canada, points out: "now everyone has access to global talent; you have people coming from various parts of the world. we like to say global is local (sankey, 2009, p 14).” in the united states, a combination of birth rate differentials and increases in immigration is expected to result in minorities comprising a majority of residents within the next three decades (stevens, wallace & hunt, 2009). in 2002 alone, there were over one million immigrants to the united states from nearly 50 countries (united states citizenship and immigration services, 2003).  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  59  
  diversity as strategic advantage today, diversity within the organizational framework of american business is touted as improving overall performance. indeed, it is competitively advantageous from a strategic position to embrace diversity. current research links the benefits of diversity to organizational performance. performance at minority-friendly organizations when compared to other organizations within similar industries significantly outperformed the market, indicating that diversity in organizations may be related to economic success (bergen, soper & parnell 2005). organizational workforces today are blended, and managing those groups effectively will benefit the bottom line (esty, griffin, & hirsch, 1997). diverse work teams are good for workforce performance as a group with diverse members performs better on production, problem solving, and creativity tasks (armstrong, et al, 2010; levi, 2007). in industry week, director of leadership organizational effectiveness alfonso gonzales cites the establishment of a diversity council and the use of inclusion by management as increasing production and innovation (selko, 2008). by hiring and making employees from diverse cultures a part of the decision making process, new ideas and recommendations will not be stunted or withheld. as a result, more minds, especially those with an understanding of other cultures, will be used in the innovative process. in a study comparing the financial performance of 50 firms with a strong commitment to diversity to a matched sample, slater, et. al (2008) found that, on average the firms with a commitment to diversity had superior performance to their peers. they note that: “when innovation occurs at the intersection of different fields, cultures, disciplines, activities, and people, diverse workforces can be rich sources of innovation (p. 204).”  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  60  
  managing diversity in the workplace as globalization continues to gain momentum, increasingly apparent is the necessity for organizations to hire leaders equipped with the skills, knowledge and ability to manage a diverse workforce in order to compete in a globally inclusive market. still, we are only starting to understand how diversity functions and how it can best be managed. first, the notion of diversity and its consequences extends beyond the obvious issues of race and gender - other forms of diversity, such as education and functional background, must be considered as well. second, evidence suggests that diversity represents a potential for both constructive and destructive outcomes. simplistic approaches to managing diversity thus risk ineffectuality at best, and serious performance decrements at worst (simons & pelled, 1999). as jayne and dipboye (2004) point out, organizations do not automatically enjoy the benefits of a diversity by hiring a diverse group of employees. managers must establish clear goals for their diversity programs and must possess both cultural awareness and the skills necessary to facilitate effective communication and harness the energy generated by constructive conflict among diverse perspectives. as employers, managers, and students we must develop a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities presented by a diverse workforce, global supply chains and international marketing. while in school, students may learn how relate more efficiently and effectively to a wide variety of instructors with diverse teaching styles. students may also have opportunities to interact with a diverse student body. opportunities from a diverse educational learning environment include the ability to communicate and work with all kinds of people. these qualities can help to make students more effective leaders and managers of the fu-  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  61  
  ture. but do students develop diversity competencies simply by being in a diverse environment? research and analysis of the viability of a diversity concentration meeting the needs of business is a priority for graduate business schools. accordingly a business school diversity concentration should provide students with tools to enhance recruitment, sales and marketing, as well as improve workforce management. however, any course or concentration must teach students the skills necessary to manage the complexities of diversity in the workplace. a diverse workforce can increase organizational effectiveness for some companies, but only if there is a supportive organizational culture and interculturally competent managers who are able to effectively harness the dynamics of a diverse team. business schools are well equipped to restructure their degree programs to include a concentration in diversity. but, is there an interest, from the student’s perspective, in a diversity concentration? as with the development of any new program within a higher educational institution, there is a mandatory need for market research to discover the necessary additions and changes that need to be applied. research design and analysis the research population consisted of 101 undergraduate and graduate business students. the research instrument, a survey consisting of 20 questions, utilized a 6-point likert scale separated into 3 constructs: influence of job market outcomes as it relates to obtaining a concentration; motivational factors for pursuing a concentration; and influence of cost of obtaining a concentration. an online questionnaire was used for data collection due to the advantages of low costs, fast rethe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  62  
  sponse, convenience of administration, and ease of data entry and analysis. by evaluating the perceptions of current business students, a primary research objective was to statistically examine incentives, motivators and deterrents of pursuing a concentration. the job market construct was future-oriented and contained questions, such as, “i believe a concentration will aid me in the future job market” and “completing a concentration will make me more competitive in the future job market.” the motivation construct contained questions, such as, “gaining additional knowledge motivates me in taking a concentration” and “completing a concentration will help me feel more accomplished as a management professional.” finally, the cost construct contained questions, such as, “assuming a cost of 625 per unit, i feel a concentration is affordable.” within the framework of the three constructs, analysis was conducted to determine which construct was most responsible for students’ decisions to pursue a concentration. additionally, a spearman rho correlation test was used to compare students’ interest in six different concentrations: organizational development, human resources, non-profit management, strategic management, public administration, and diversity. construct reliability analysis of participant’s responses revealed significant insights into the driving factors behind student’s desire to pursue a concentration. using chronbach’s alpha, two of the three constructs proved reliable; the cost construct was marginally reliable. chronbach’s alpha was applied to all questions within the three constructs. with an alpha of .880 (n of items 6), the job market construct was reliable. with an alpha of .745 (n of items 5), the motivation construct the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  63  
  was reliable. however, an alpha of .248 (n of items 4) indicates the cost construct was unreliable. after elimination of two of the four cost construct questions, an alpha of .619 (n of items 2) established the construct as marginally reliable. thus, the revised construct was used in all tests involving the cost construct. demographic data the following section discusses the profiles of the respondents as categorized by gender, ethnicity, age, and gpa. demographic data was compiled using valid percentages—a percentage calculated using only those respondents who answered the question. missing values were not included. the tables below summarize the research sampling response rate and presents the frequency distribution results by demographic category. a total of 52% of respondents were female while a total of 48% were male. table 1.1 presents demographic ethnicity data by category. of respondents who answered, a total of 59% were caucasian, 41.6% were minority of the minority group 20% were identified themselves as hispanic while 22% can be categorized as other (i.e. african american, asian). table 1.1: ethnicity frequencies and percentages ethnicity  valid total  frequency  valid %  caucasian  59  58.4  minority  42 101  41.6 100.0  below, table 1.2 presents undergraduate gpa data by category. of those who answered, a total of 14.4% had a gpa between 2.0 - 3.0, 34% had a gpa between 3.1 – 3.5, and 51% had a gpa between 3.6 – 4.0.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  64  
  table 1.2: gpa frequencies and percentages gpa frequency valid 2.0 – 3.0 14  valid % 14.4  3.1 – 3.5  33  3.6 – 4.0  50  51.5  97  100.0  total  34.0  contained in table 1.3 is demographic data by age. of those respondents who answered, a total of 38% were aged 18-21, a total of 44% were aged 22-29, and 17% were 30 and older. table 1.3: age frequencies and percentages gpa frequency valid 18-21 39 22-29 30 and over total  45  valid % 38.6 44.6  17  16.8  101  100.0  descriptive statistics for job market, motivation, and cost table 2, analysis of descriptive statistics, presents a summary of the construct means and questions. in the first construct, job market, the highest mean was “more competitive in the job market” (m 4.70, sd .94). the lowest mean was “career path more focused” (m 4.27, sd 1.24). in the second construct, motivation, the highest means were “additional knowledge” (m 4.46, sd 1.20) and “desired focus” (m 4.41, sd 1.10). the lowest mean (m 3.30, sd 1.37) was “more motivated with peers”. in the third and final construct, cost, the highest mean was “discounted tuition” (m 4.00, sd 1.43), while the lowest mean was “affordable” (m 2.99, sd 1.30).  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  65  
  table 2: analysis of descriptive statistics for job market, motivation and cost  survey question  n  mean  std. deviation  101  4.57  1.08  101  4.70  .94  101  4.36  1.13  101  4.57  1.09  99  4.36  1.11  100  4.27  1.24  feeling more accomplished additional knowledge motivates desired focus motivates  101  4.04  1.34  100  4.46  1.20  101  4.41  1.10  more qualified  101  4.27  1.18  more motivated with peers  100  3.30  1.37  concentration is affordable  101  2.99  1.30  only take if discounted tuition  101  4.00  1.43  value of concentration worth cost  100  3.57  1.10  cost is a major motivating factor  101  3.84  1.65  job market construct aid in future job market more competitive in job market higher pay in future job market set apart from peers more desirable with concentration career path more focused motivation construct  cost construct  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  66  
  anova for age on job market, motivation, and cost out of the demographic questions –including ethnicity, age, undergraduate gpa, and gender –only age provided significant findings. there was a significant difference in age in the job market construct [f(2,98) 6.49, sig .002]. further post-hoc analysis indicated 18-21 year olds (m 4.80, sd .84) rated job market significantly higher than the 30 and older group (m 3.95, sd .79). there was a significant difference in age in the motivation construct [f(2,98) 4.88, sig .010]. further posthoc analysis indicated 18-21 year olds (m 4.43, sd .77) rated motivation significantly higher than the 22-29 year olds (m 3.89, sd .89). lastly, there was a significant difference in age in the cost construct [f(2,98) 3.68, sig .029]. further post-hoc analysis indicated 18-21 year olds (m 3.63, sd 1.07) rated the cost construct significantly higher than the 22-29 year olds (m 3.03, sd 1.05). repeated measures anova for job market, motivation, and cost a repeated measures anova was conducted on the three constructs: job market, motivation, and cost. sphericty was not assumed (p .001) therefore greenhouse-geisser was used. there was a significant difference revealed [f(1.68,100) 97.64, sig .001]. further post-hoc analysis using least significant difference showed a significant difference between job market (m 4.47, sd .88) and both motivation (m 4.10, sd .89) and cost (m 3.28, sd 1.06). moreover, motivation (m 4.10, sd .89) was rated higher than cost (m 3.28, sd 1.06).  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  67  
  figure 1: estimated marginal means for job market, motivation, and cost  spearman rho correlation all six concentrations offered in the business management program were analyzed utilizing a spearman rho correlation. as noted in table 3, the rankings revealed the following significant correlations:  there was a significant negative correlation between od and non-profit (r -.239, p .05).  there was a significant negative correlation between od and public administration (r -.353, p .01).  there was a significant negative correlation between diversity and hr (r -.220, p .01).  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  68      there was a significant negative correlation between diversity and public administration (r -.324, p .01). there was a significant negative correlation between hr and strategic management (r -.304, p .01). there was a significant negative correlation between non-profit and strategic management (r .335, p .01).  table 3: spearman rho matrix for analysis of concentrations correlations od  organizational development (od) diversity human resources (hr) non-profit  diversity .127  hr  nonprofit  public admin  strategic mgmt  -.182  -.239 *  -.353*  -.090  -.220 *  -.120  -.324*  -.173  -.017  -.304*  -.084  -.335*  -.120  public administration  -.118  *p 0.05  according to the students surveyed, the strategic management, od and hr concentrations were the most attractive. research demonstrates students interested in obtaining a diversity concentration were also interested in the public administration and human resource concentrations. however, both the public administration and human resource concentration were more appealing to students than the diversity concentration.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  69  
  analysis of constructs using pearson correlation all three constructs were analyzed utilizing a pearson correlation. as noted in table 4, the findings revealed the following significant correlations:  there was a significant positive correlation between job market and motivation (r .672, p .01).  there was a significant positive correlation between job market and cost (r .435, p .01).  there was a significant positive correlation between motivation and cost (r .635, p .01). table 4: pearson correlation for analysis of constructs  job market job market motivation  motivation  cost  .672*  .435* .625*  *p 0.01 chi square a chi-square test was performed across the different concentration options. the concentrations were condensed from a 1-6 ranking to low ranking (1-3) versus high ranking (4-6). there were three significant findings – diversity for strategic advantage (p .04), non-profit management (p .01), and strategic management (p .01). further analysis using frequency distribution showed the diversity concentration was ranked low by 60.4% of respondents and high by 39.6%. the non-profit management concentration was ranked low by 62.8% and high by 37.2% by respondents. the strategic management concentration, however, was ranked low by 31.3%  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  70  
  and high by 68.7% of those surveyed. there were no significant differences with the following concentrations: organizational development, human resources, and public administration. continued analysis, utilizing cross-tabulation of the diversity concentration (low versus high ranking) with the job market construct (negative versus positive rating), indicated students that ranked the diversity concentration low and the job market construct high accounted for 58.3%. on the other hand, students that rated the diversity concentration high and the job market construct low accounted for zero percent. similarly, comparing diversity in the motivation construct, those that ranked the diversity concentration low and the motivation construct high accounted for 47.9%. yet, students that ranked the diversity concentration high and the motivation construct low accounted for only 2.1%. finally, respondents that rated the cost construct high ranked the diversity concentration low (28.1%). conversely, those that ranked the diversity concentration high and the cost construct low accounted for 16.7%. the descriptive research suggests that students surveyed found little to no value in the public administration, diversity for strategic advantage, and non-profit management concentrations respective to the three constructs – job market, motivation, and cost. on the other hand, the descriptive research suggests that students found value in the strategic management, organizational development, and human resources concentrations with respect to the three constructs. discussion the main purpose of this study was to discover and understand the relationship between students’ motivations and inclinations of pursuing one of several possible degree concentrations. further, this study aimed to de-  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  71  
  termine students’ perceptions of and interest in obtaining a diversity concentration. although the findings research findings were able to provide significant and useful data, a clear understanding of students’ motivations and inclinations towards the diversity for strategic advantage concentration did not emerge. moreover, due to the absence of prior research a comparison analysis was not available. therefore, the researchers formed focus groups to better understand students’ inclinations toward concentrations -specifically the diversity for strategic advantage concentration. two focus groups were formed from students representing the surveyed population. as expected, the disadvantages of concentrations were mostly perceived as costly and lengthening the required curriculum. however, ancedotal data gathered from the focus groups suggested two intriguing findings regarding the diversity concentration. surprisingly, the majority of the students indicated a belief that diversity had become commonplace. student statements included, “we experience diversity every day” and “i grew up with diversity – in my school and in my neighborhood.” additionally, more than half of the students participating in the focus group believed diversity competencies were a skillset they already possessed. data gathered included the following statements, “i’ve been taught about diversity all through my schooling” and “i work with a diverse group every day.” limitations and future directions there are several limitations to this study. the most significant limitation of this study was the use of a nonprobability convenience sample of the target population. although the non-probability convenience sample of the target population provided invaluable information for the business management program, a more robust sample size may have yielded different results. this the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  72  
  study was conducted at a single private institution; future studies should include participants from different geographic regions and public universities offering diversity curriculum since public and private institutions of higher education differ in their environments (marginson, 2007). hence, the results cannot be generalized. an additional limitation of the study was the lack of open-ended survey questions thereby limiting the data to the three survey constructs. although the study identified important factors in a student’s decision to complete a concentration, there may be other equally important factors that were not addressed in the survey. in addition, the job market construct contained six questions, the motivation construct contained five questions, and the cost construct only contained four questions. consequently this may have yielded skewed results. conclusion and recommendations while the need for future business leaders equipped to manage a diverse workforce combined with the lack of graduate diversity curricula (stevens, hunt & wallace, 2009) provides a significant opportunity for business schools, research indicates a lack of student interest in obtaining a diversity concentration. it appears that business schools intent on offering a graduate concentration in diversity would need to engage in significant marketing efforts in order to convince students of the benefits of concentrations in general and a concentration in diversity in particular. it would be necessary to educate prospective students regarding the critical need for managers who have the skills, knowledge and ability to manage a diverse workforce in an increasingly global marketplace. in addition, such business schools may want to concentrate their marketing efforts on undergraduate students and new graduates because study participants in the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  73  
  the 18-21 age range indicated a greater interest in degree concentrations. however, at the same time this age group reported a sensitivity to price, so creative efforts to make a concentration affordable would likely increase the probability of enrolling students into a concentration. finally, since study participants were attracted most to concentrations in organizational development and change and strategic management, schools may consider combining significant training in diversity with one or both of these concentrations. acknowledgement special thanks to angela hogman, derek cram, eric clark and johnny jessup for directing and overseeing the school of business and management concentration research project. references armstrong, c., flood, p.c., guthrie, j.p., wenchuan, l., maccurtain, s. & mkamwa, t. (2010). the impact of diversity and equality management on firm performance beyond high performance work systems. human resource management, 49(6), pp. 977-998. azusa pacific university. (2010). enrollment and persistence. in office of institutional research common data set: 2007-2008. retrieved july 29, 2008 from http://www.apu.edu/ir/commondata/2008/b/ bergen, soper, parnell. workforce diversity and organizational performance. equal opportunities international 2005. volume: 24 issue: 3/4 page: 1 – 16. barmarick publications. esty, k. c., griffin, r., hirsch, m. s. (1995). workplace diversity: a manager’s guide to solving problems and turning diversity into a competitive advantage. adams media. emcr. helm-stevens, r., wallace, g., hunt, l. (2009). an examination of a diversity concentration for a graduate level business degree program. business education & accreditation, 1, 15-28. jayne, m. & dipboye, r. (2004). leveraging diversity to improve business performance: research findings and recommendations for organizations. human resource management, 43(4), pp. 409-424. levi, d. (2007). group dynamics for teams, 2nd ed; california: sage publications; pgs 219-221 marginson, s. (2007). the public/private divide in higher education: a global revision, higher education, vol 53(3), 307-333.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  74  
  sankey, d. (2009, february 25). global is local becomes the new mantra. the financial post canada, fp careers, p. 14. retrieved july 20, 2009, from lexisnexis academic database selko, a. (2008). the business case for diversity. manufacturer's agenda, (11), 46 -50. simons, t., pelled, l. h., (1999). understanding executive diversity: more than meets the eye, human resource planning, vol. 22, 1999. slater, s., weigand, r., & zwirlein, t. (2008) the business case for commitment to diversity.business horizons, 51(3), 201-209. thomas, d. a., & kanji, a. (2004). ibm’s diversity strategy: bridging the workplace and the marketplace. harvard business school case (405-044). u.s. citizenship and immigration. historical statistics of the united states, (washington, d.c. u.s. government printing office, 2003). http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis williams, benton. (2005). title vii and the private sector origins of affirmative action 1964-1996. retrieved july 26, 2009 from: http://0proquest.umi.com.patris.apu.edu/pqdweb?index 19&sid  3&srchmode 1&vinst prod&fmt 6&startpage 1&clientid 23686 &vname pqd&rqt 309&did 1003849161&scaling full&ts 12489 05944&vtype pqd&rqt 309&ts 1248906138&clientid 23686  roxanne helm-stevens is program chair of the master of arts in management program at azusa pacific university. her areas of teaching include organizational behavior, management, business, and employee development. prior to joining apu, helm-stevens worked in public and private industry, during which time she held management positions in various industries. throughout her corporate career, she received recognition and numerous awards for her work in performance improvement, benchmarking, and best practices. active in her field, she has received national certifications from the international society for process improvement and the american society for training and development. she holds a dba (abd), strategic management, from alliant international university, an mba in human and organizational development from azusa pacific university, and a b.s. in business administration/b.a. in business management from university of phoenix. the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  75  
  mark dickerson is associate professor, leadership, and vice president for legal affairs and community relations/general counsel at azusa pacific university. he has been practicing law since 1976 and has served in private practice, as general counsel for a multi-national corporation listed on the new york stock exchange, and as a member of a crisis management team addressing the legal and financial issues facing a large charitable organization involved in one of the largest charitable bankruptcy proceedings in u.s. history. dickerson received a b.s. in mathematics from grand canyon university, a j.d. from harvard law school, an m.a. in theology from fuller theological seminary, and both an m.a. and a ph.d. in human and organizational systems from fielding graduate university.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  76  
  short  paper  meeting service level challenges through proactive strategies robert s. fleming, ed.d., rowan university faye x. zhu, ph.d., rowan university  abstract the success and survival of any organization is based on its ability to meet and, where possible, exceed the expectations of stakeholders. challenges associated with service delivery consistent with these expectations can result from developments in an organization’s external environment. this article considers how contemporary emergency service organizations can successfully address the increasing service demands resulting from the aging of the “baby boomer” generation through engaging in a paradigm shift from traditional strategies to a proactive community risk reduction approach  introduction an increasing number of contemporary organizations are facing unprecedented challenges as they seek to continue to meet and, ideally, exceed stakeholder expectations in times of austerity. these challenges are further enhanced when factors within the environment in which an organization delivers services contribute to increases in the demand for services. these situations are particularly problematic in industries where demand increases are the result of demographic factors and economic realities are driving reductions in the funding necessary to support service delivery. this article will consider the delivery of services by emergency response organizations. while the realities of budget cuts and reductions in force that continue to the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  77  
  occur throughout emergency services are well known, a perhaps even more significant factor looms on the horizon for these organizations that will most certainly represent a major threat to the success and perhaps even survival of many of these organizations. service demands of an aging population much has been written about the “baby boomer” generation and the implications of this generation advancing in age. the impact of the aging of this sizeable segment of our population has been considered in terms of the adequacy of the social security program to withstand the increased demand of providing promised retirement benefits to this group. while the focus of attention has been on this issue, there are other implications of an aging baby boomer population from the perspective of certain contemporary organizations and industries. many organizations that provide healthcare products and/or services inherit potential opportunities associated with an aging population. typically as individuals age, they develop increasing healthcare needs, thus creating a significant opportunity for organizations in related industries. the caveat is obviously that these organizations must be properly positioned in terms of resources and capabilities to take advantage of these opportunities. the increased healthcare needs of an aging population, however, extend beyond the provision of medical products and devices, and the provision of healthcare services in a physician’s office or medical facility such as a hospital or nursing home. the reality is that many of these healthcare needs arise when an older person experiences a medical emergency, such as a heart attack or stroke, or a traumatic injury, such as a fall, and requires emergency medical services in the field to asthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  78  
  sess, treat, and transport the patient to an appropriate medical facility. while in the past, increasing demand for service may have represented an opportunity for emergency medical service organizations, it has become obvious that for many communities and the emergency medical service organizations that provide these mission-critical, life-saving services, the significant increase in service demands resulting from an aging population may unfortunately represent a threat to organizational success and survival, based on an organization’s ability to absorb increases in call volume. the case of one community serves to illustrate the reality and magnitude of this challenge. the percentage of community residents age 65 and older has increased in recent years and is expected to continue to increase in the future. while ten years ago only 28 percent of the residents were age 65 or older; this number increased to 31 percent five years ago. the present 36 percent is projected to increase to 40 percent over the next five years. the reality that older individuals typically require more emergency medical services than younger people is supported by the increased call volume of the emergency service organization supplying these essential services. while ten years ago this organization ran 2,200 emergency medical service calls a year; this number increased to 3,000 calls five years ago. the present 3,500 calls per year are projected to increase to 4,000 calls per year over the next five years. the increasing call volumes in this community, and the demographics of these calls in terms of patient age and call nature, illustrate the magnitude of the challenges of serving an aging population. stakeholder service expectations  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  79  
  to fully understand and appreciate the expectations that stakeholders have for emergency medical services one must consider the fact that a significant number of the requests for emergency medical services involve medical emergencies or traumatic injuries that can be life-threatening. it is therefore realistic and reasonable to expect that emergency medical service units will be available to respond and deliver necessary services in a timely and appropriate manner. stakeholders, likewise, expect that service providers will be properly qualified, courteous, and professional as they deliver patient services. these services should be consistent regardless of when a call is received or the assigned emergency medical service crew. staffing is an essential element while the resource requirements of meeting these service expectations certainly involve vehicles and equipment, crew staffing is obviously of paramount importance in ensuring the service quality that a community and service stakeholders have a right to expect. personnel must be properly trained and credentialed to deliver needed services to members of the community that they serve. these elements are thus essential to the fulfillment of an organization’s mission of providing quality essential services to the residents of a community. emergency service organizations utilize one of three staffing models to address the personnel requirements associated with service delivery. these staffing models are classified as volunteer, combination, or career. all personnel serve through volunteering their time and service in a volunteer organization. all personnel serve in a paid capacity in a career organization. many contemporary organizations utilize a combination staffing model wherein some personnel  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  80  
  serve as volunteers while others serve in a paid capacity. challenges in service delivery while organizations in many industries would view increasing demand for service as an opportunity, unfortunately that is not the case when it comes to the field delivery of emergency medical services. the handling of the increased call volume that is in large part the result of population aging obviously dictates corresponding staffing increases. regardless of the staffing model utilized by an organization, attaining desired and necessary staffing levels is often problematic. organizations that rely on volunteers for staffing have experienced staffing shortages resulting from the limited time that volunteers have to serve their communities through running emergency calls. many organizations that have traditionally been staffed exclusively with volunteers are adopting combination staffing strategies as they hire paid personnel to supplement their volunteer ranks. likewise, budgetary limitations make the hiring of additional personnel problematic in many communities. the economic realities in some jurisdictions have resulted in staffing cutbacks, further complicating the challenge of successfully delivering services that fully meet organizational responsibilities and stakeholder expectations. increases in personnel and other operating costs, likewise, present formidable challenges in many communities. the essential elements of the business equation obviously involve balancing revenues and expenses. the hiring of additional personnel represents a significant component of the operating costs of an emergency service organization. the revenue side of the equation can prove equally challenging given the economic and budgetary realities facing many of these orthe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  81  
  ganizations and the communities that they serve. at the same time as municipalities are finding it necessary to reduce funding streams for these services, uncertainties regarding levels of future insurance reimbursements and the full implications of healthcare reform loom on the horizon as potential threats to organizations that deliver healthcare services, including those provided by “first responders.” while certain of the above challenges are somewhat new in many communities, the very nature of delivering emergency services is not. emergency service organizations provide mission-critical, time sensitive services that are typically labor intensive and must be customized to the specific needs of an emergency situation. the greater challenges to service delivery derive from the fact that these services are unscheduled and result in varying call volumes to which these organizations must be prepared to respond. these challenges thus complicate and challenge an organization’s ability to fully meet and, ideally, exceed community expectations for service delivery. ensuring response capability to meet service demands the magnitude and reality of the challenges associated with meeting increases in the demand for services, in large part resulting from the aging of the baby boomer population, have presented challenges in many communities as illustrated in the earlier example. in a growing number of jurisdictions elected officials and emergency service leaders are struggling to find the elusive solution to handling increased emergency medical service call volume without significant cost increases or resource infusions. it will be prudent for communities and their emergency service organizations that have not yet had to the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  82  
  address these challenges to engage in strategic planning processes designed to ensure their future readiness and response capacity. it will be imperative that these organizations develop an understanding of strategies that they could utilize to address the increasing service demands resulting from the aging baby boomer generation. it would appear that what may be necessary is a “paradigm shift” from the traditional approach to handling increasing service demands to an enlightened approach of managing call volume through community risk reduction strategies. traditional approach the traditional approach utilized by emergency service organizations in responding to increased service demands is similar to how organizations in many other industries prepare to meet increased demands for service. an example of this would be the growth of a community in terms of population and resulting community development, illustrated by a community that doubled in size in a ten-year period. this population increase resulted in enhanced community infrastructure, including new schools, retail stores, and emergency service stations. this traditional approach is thus a “reactive” approach wherein growth is anticipated and desired, and corresponding service resources are added in proportion to this growth. this is illustrated by a municipal fire and rescue organization that built into its plan the identification of growth benchmarks that would trigger the addition of a new station. the addition of this new facility obviously has corresponding resource requirements in terms of personnel staffing, apparatus, and equipment. this reactive approach thus involves preparing to handle increasing service demands by adding additional the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  83  
  resources in response to increases in call volumes. while this approach may have served many communities and the emergency service organizations that serve those who live in, work in, and travel to and through their communities well in the past, the magnitude and unprecedented challenges of the aging baby boomer generation dictate rethinking the viability of such a resource-intensive approach, in the austere times in which we live. proactive solutions to meeting service demands in recent years, both elected officials and emergency service leaders have considered and, in a growing number of instances, implemented innovative strategies designed to achieve cost effectiveness in service delivery. these strategies have typically involved various approaches to restructuring the organization or its response protocols. these initiatives have involved consolidation, redistricting, and/or regionalization. while there have been many examples of successful formulation and implementation of such “proactive” strategies; there have likewise been more than a few cases where the intended results of enhancing effectiveness, efficiency, and safety were not realized. an inherent flaw in many of these strategies would appear to be that while proactive and innovative in comparison to traditional approaches, they continue to focus on finding ways to address growing service demands in terms of call volume, rather than considering the incorporation of strategies that could reduce call volume through appropriate risk management activities. the classical risk management model certainly has relevance here. the community risk reduction approach developed by the national fire academy, likewise, offers valuable insights as decision-makers struggle to understand and the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  84  
  address the issue of meeting the emergency medical service needs of an aging population. this process includes the assessment of community risk, development of intervention strategies, strategy implementation, and program evaluation. the success of such an approach is based on building organizational equity, creating an organizational culture, identifying community stakeholders, engaging the community, and building community equity. the adoption of a proactive community risk reduction approach has the potential of enabling an emergency service organization to successfully manage the service needs of an aging population through initiatives that reduce the occurrence of certain events and resulting emergency service demands. this approach would involve the addition of services designed to prevent medical emergencies and traumatic injuries. an example of a proactive approach to community risk reduction would be initiatives including community education programs and home inspections designed to reduce trips and falls of the elderly and resulting calls for emergency medical services. balancing service demands the secret to success in meeting the service level challenges discussed in this article is both complex and multifaceted. it has become clear that the reactive approach traditionally utilized is no longer viable in many communities and is incapable of fully addressing the realistic expectations of the stakeholders of emergency medical services, including those of the baby boomer generation. the necessity of strategic thinking and comprehensive strategic planning are obvious. while all alternative strategies should be considered – including consolidation, redistricting, and regionalization – seeking to discover ways to manage increasing  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  85  
  call volume through proactive risk reduction strategies must be part of the new paradigm of service delivery. summary the aging of the baby boomer generation will continue to present challenges in emergency service delivery in a growing number of communities whose residents expect and deserve service delivery that meets and, where possible, exceeds stakeholder expectations. as well, the corresponding resource requirements of meeting this demand will be increasingly problematic in a growing number of communities. a proactive community risk reduction strategy will enable emergency service organizations to address the needs of the aging baby boomer population. the advocated paradigm shift will prove essential as these organizations prepare to successfully address present and future service demands in a manner that enhances the health, well-being, and quality of life within their communities. references belau, s. (2008). the evaluation of a community fall prevention initiative in the rochester fire department. emmitsburg, md: national fire academy. centers for disease control and prevention. (2008). falls among older adults. atlanta, ga: centers for disease control and prevention. centers for disease control and prevention. (2008). preventing falls: how to develop a community-based fall prevention program for older adults. atlanta, ga: centers for disease control and prevention. dugan, d.b. (2010). limiting senior fall injuries through engineering interventions. emmitsburg, md; national fire academy. fleming, r. (2010). the contemporary fire and emergency services organization: meeting and exceeding stakeholder expectations. in effective fire and emergency services administration. tulsa, ok: fire engineering/pennwell 12-16. knowledgetoday@wharton. (march 18, 2013). can the u.s. meet its aging population’s healthcare needs? philadelphia, pa: the wharton school of the university of pennsylvania.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  86  
  http://knowledgetoday.wharton.upenn.edu/2013/03/can-the-us-meet-its-aging-populations-health-care-needs. national fire academy. (2010). executive analysis of community risk reduction. emmitsburg, md: national fire academy.  dr. robert fleming, a professor of management at rowan university, is a highly respected researcher, author, instructor, consultant and conference speaker within the fire and emergency services community. the primary focus of his teaching, research and consulting has been on enhancing organizational effectiveness, with an emphasis on local, county, state, regional and national fire and emergency services organizations. in addition to a doctor of education in higher education administration from temple university, dr. fleming has five earned masters’ degrees, including a master of business administration from temple university and a master of government administration from the fels center of government of the university of pennsylvania. his professional activities have included serving as chairman of the national fire academy board of visitors, the certified fire protection specialist board, and the commonwealth of pennsylvania fire service certification advisory committee. he is frequently interviewed by the print, radio and television media as an expert on emergency management and terrorism preparedness. dr. faye zhu, a professor of management at rowan university, is a well-respected academician and researcher in an array of disciplines related to organizational effectiveness. in addition to collaborating with dr. fleming, she has an impressive record of research and conference presentations with colleagues both at rowan university and other well respected institutions. the focus of her teaching and professional activities has been on operations management, quality management and managerial decision making. dr. zhu’s acathe business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  87  
  demic preparation includes a master of business administration with a major in executive management from ashland university and a doctor of business administration with a major in operations management and a minor in management information systems from cleveland state university.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  88  
  information for contributors the business renaissance quarterly is a double blind reviewed journal, set out by the business renaissance institute, and focused on the publication of papers and articles pertaining to improvement of workplace performance, and enhancement of the quality of life for all stakeholders in a business environment. the journal focuses on a dual reading audience: 1) scholars with an interest in the topic, and 2) business executives. based on the journal’s reading audience, the types of papers considered for publication are also dual: there is a scholarly section, and a business oriented part.  the scholarly section consists of papers varying in length between 2000 and 5000 words, with proper citation and adherence to apa v format.  the business executive section consists of papers varying in length between 1000 and 2500 words, written in more popular language, and thus more appealing to business executives. invitation for submission the business renaissance quarterly, brq, invites scholars, student-scholars, business executives and members of the corporate world to participate in the journal. because our focus, as indicated above, is geared toward business renaissance, the brq accepts papers that are reviewing processes, procedures, research outcomes, and suggestions regarding the improvement of the quality of work life for all business stakeholders. all submissions are subject to a two-person blind peer review process. please email your submissions to: jmarques01@earthlink.net  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  89  
  brq reserves the rights to amend, modify, add to, or delete its rules, policies, and procedures with regard to its institutional relationship with authors (contributors) as deemed necessary by the administration. any such amendment, modification, addition, or deletion shall not be considered a violation of the relationship between brq and authors (contributors). each paper will first be reviewed, while the registration fee will be paid by the contributor upon acceptance of the paper. no publication fees the brq is an independent journal that publishes submitted manuscripts, free of charge, after they have been gone through a double blind peer review process. depending on reviewer's findings, manuscripts can be accepted, accepted after minor or major revisions, or rejected. articles are published in one of 4 issues annually authors interested in receiving hard copies of the issues in which their article was published will be charged for printing and shipping costs. shipping costs for hard copies:  within the u.s. and canada: 35 per set of 3 copies.  international: 48 per set of 3 copies. subscription rates:      for institutions, agencies, and libraries 80.00 in the united states; 100.00 in canada and mexico, 120.00 in the rest of the world. for individuals, 60.00 in the united states, canada and mexico, and 80.00 in the rest of the world. single-issue price: 20.00 for institutions, and for individuals. for students: 50.00 per year, and 15.00 per single issue.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  90  
  to ensure correct and prompt delivery, all orders must give either the name of an individual or an official purchase order number. subscription orders should be mailed to: business renaissance quarterly 532 south lake avenue suite 102, pasadena, california 91101-3529 editorial correspondence may be sent via e-mail to the editor, dr. joan marques, at jmarques01@earthlink.net topics of high interest to the brq authors may submit manuscripts on all topics that relate to enhancement of the quality of life in workplaces. below are some suggestions for topics in which the brq has a high interest:  human resource development issues    workplace fulfillment    emotional intelligence    organizational leadership    responsible efficiency enhancing procedures    workplace diversity    spirituality in the workplace    organizational communication    organizational culture    relationship theories pertaining to workplace performance and quality of life    and all other business renaissance oriented topics  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  91  
  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  92  
  board of directors of the business renaissance quarterly dr. joan marques stands for more than 20 successful years in advertising, radio- and television production, show-hosting; and dynamic entrepreneurship, executed in suriname, south america, and burbank, ca. she has founded and managed several businesses and a non-profit organization prior to her migration to the u.s. dr. marques holds a b.sc. in business economics from moc (suriname), an mba from woodbury university; a doctorate (ed.d.) in organizational leadership from pepperdine university, and a doctorate (ph.d.) in social sciences (buddhist psychology in the workplace) from tilburg university. she has done significant research on the topics workplace spirituality and leadership, and has authored/co-authored multiple articles and nine books, pertaining to workplace contentment and emotional intelligence. her current research interests include workplace spirituality, enhanced consciousness at work, and awakened leadership. dr. satinder dhiman has guided business leaders for the last 30 years, and served for 10 years as a senior lecturer in commerce at dav college in north india. he has co-authored various textbooks in the area of accounting and management. he currently serves as professor of management and as associate dean, school of business, at woodbury university. dr. dhiman has won several teaching excellence awards, including acbsp's prestigious international teaching excellence award in 2004, the steve allen "excellence in education" award in 2006, and "excellence in management education award," presented in 2008 & 2011 by the punjab government and ipcsi, india. he holds a masters degree in commerce (with gold medal) from panjab university, india; a doctorate (ed.d.) in organizational leadership from pepperdine university, and a doctorate (ph.d.) in social sciences (buddhist psychology in the workplace) from tilburg university. he has completed executive leadership programs at stanford, harvard, and wharton. his current research interests include transformational leadership, spirituality in the workplace, and the role of mindfulness in life and leadership.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  93  
  dr. richard king is a recognized authority on united states pacific rim business relations, and founded his company, king international group, to carry out his personal commitment to strengthening these relations. he has held top management positions at major organizations and currently serves on the boards of various pacific rim oriented organizations. he is a longtime member of the noetic institute and the world business academy. dr. king is a frequent writer and speaker on pacific rim business issues, and is the initiator of the business renaissance consulting project, which focuses on ‘adding humanity to the bottom line.’ he is also chairman of go green solutions, a company dedicated to sustainable development, emphasizing led lighting solutions and consulting. he holds a b. sc. from syracuse university, an m.a. from occidental college and an honorary doctorate of business administration from woodbury university.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  94  
  board of advisors of the business renaissance quarterly dr. ian i. mitroff, the harold quinton distinguished professor of business policy and founder of the usc center for crisis management which he directed for 10 years at the marshall school of business, university of southern california, los angeles. he is also a professor of journalism and the director of the anenberg center for strategic public relations, at the anenberg school of communications at usc. dr. mitroff has published over 250 papers and articles and 22 books. dr. lee bolman, author, scholar, consultant and lecturer who currently holds the marion bloch missouri chair in leadership at the university of missouri-kansas city. he has written numerous books on leadership and organizations with co-author terry deal. bolman and deal’s books have been translated into ten languages. dr. bolman consults and lectures worldwide to corporations, public agencies, universities and schools. dr. judi neal received her ph.d. from yale university in organizational behavior and was a manager of organizational development at honeywell for a number of years. she is the executive director, association for spirit at work (www.spiritatwork.org) and founder of the international spirit at work awards. judi has published numerous journal articles, is a founding editor of the journal of management, spirituality and religion, and is currently working on three books. dr. marjolein lips-wiersma, lecturer at the university of canterbury and coordinator of the first new zealand university course on spirituality in the workplace. dr. lipswiersma is also program chair of the management, spirituality and religion division of the american academy of management. she specializes in positive and sustainable change techniques, and has published a broad variety of research papers, refereed book chapters, refereed public conference papers, and book reviews.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  95  
  dr. turan senguder is the chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the journal of american academy of business, cambridge. in this position, dr. senguder has successfully organized various business conferences in the u.s. and europe. he has written several articles on business topics for various sources.  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  96  
  the business renaissance institute doing well by doing good the business renaissance institute was conceived in a 2004 salon workshop in pasadena, but was preceded by a long and consistent history of roundtable sessions, lectures, doctoral research, and work experiences from the three bri directors, richard king, satinder dhiman, and joan marques. the business renaissance institute focuses on the utilization of all possible sources to actually and consistently work toward the transformation of business into an environment where not only quantity but also quality of output, return on investment, and job satisfaction are accomplished.  the mission of the business renaissance institute is to transform workplaces by adding more humanity to the bottom line  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  97  
  projects executed by the business renaissance institute:   workshops in enhancing workplace fulfillment, performance, and productivity.    authoring and publishing books, articles, monographs and literature on the paradigm change taking place in the corporate world.    planning and executing business renaissance oriented conferences and dialogue sessions.  the business renaissance institute can be contacted as follows: ph: 626.792.6898 - and 818.288.6294 fax: 626.792.8198 email: jmarques01@earthlink.net headquarters: 532 south lake avenue pasadena-california 91101-3529  the business renaissance quarterly: enhancing the quality of life at work  98  
  view publication stats  
       


authors_index: harris, alma jones, michelle
secondary_title_index: school leadership & management
title_index: the dark side of leadership and management
full_text_index:
       see discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327598616  the dark side of leadership and management article in school leadership and management · october 2018 doi: 10.1080/13632434.2018.1509276  citations  reads  23  11,165  2 authors: alma harris  michelle jones  swansea university  swansea university  242 publications 16,578 citations  62 publications 1,389 citations  see profile  see profile  some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:  exploring leadership development and leadership practice in differentially performing education systems - cases from hong kong view project  a comparative analysis of turnaround schools in malaysia and indonesia view project  all content following this page was uploaded by michelle jones on 20 september 2018. the user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.  
  school leadership & management formerly school organisation  issn: 1363-2434 (print) 1364-2626 (online) journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cslm20  the dark side of leadership and management alma harris & michelle jones to cite this article: alma harris & michelle jones (2018) the dark side of leadership and management, school leadership & management, 38:5, 475-477, doi: 10.1080/13632434.2018.1509276 to link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2018.1509276  published online: 11 sep 2018.  submit your article to this journal  article views: 1274  view crossmark data  full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode cslm20  
  school leadership & management 2018, vol. 38, no. 5, 475–477 https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2018.1509276  editorial  the dark side of leadership and management the contemporary field of educational leadership and management is replete with accounts of transformational leadership, instructional leadership, distributed leadership, and turnaround leadership practices (e.g. leithwood and sun (2012); fullan 2018; harris and deflaminis 2016). focusing on the positive and normative aspects of leadership tends to be a preoccupation within the field, as a large corpus of empirical evidence reinforces a strong relationship between certain models of leadership and positive organisational change (leithwood et al. 2008). there is also a wealth of popularist literature highlighting the positive features and potential of certain types of leadership and management practices. these optimistic accounts of leadership and management, however, tend to overshadow and surpass any reflections upon the negative aspects of leadership and management. the destructive or counter-productive forms of leadership and management have received considerably less attention, in the empirical literature, than those associated with more positive outcomes. yet there is a growing body of literature that highlights why and how leadership and management may not always be a force for good (cohen 2018). this evidence base points towards the negative features or the ‘dark side’ of leadership and management practices (woestman and wasonga 2015). among scholars in the fields of organisational behaviour and industrial psychology, there is increasing interest in the less palatable side of leadership. a growing number of studies have focused on abusive behaviours, toxic relationships, and the bullying tactics of those in positions of power (neves and schyns 2018; simonet et al. 2018). for example, neves (2014) found that submissive employees, characterised by a lack of social support from peers, received more abuse from their leaders than those more well-connected to others within the organisation. the findings from this study imply that those who were more socially or personally vulnerable, within the organisation, were more likely to be subjected to harassment and bullying. other evidence suggests that negative leadership or management behaviours manifest themselves in certain actions that are directed towards specific individuals or groups (cohen 2018). these actions include: the deliberate marginalisation of certain groups, often minority groups within the organisation, blatant favouritism of some colleagues over others, using existing personal relationships within the organisation to influence the progression of some colleagues and not others and punitive emails to bully and repress the views of those deemed to be a potential threat to the status quo (schyns and schilling 2013). most recently, samier and milley (2018) have explored the concept of ‘maladministration’ in education focusing upon examples of weak or toxic leadership and management practices. they describe ‘maladministration’ as the phenomena of harmful administrative and organisational behaviours in educational systems. they outline a range of destructive practices that occur in educational organisations, such as negligence, the mistreatment of people, professional dishonesty, fraud and embezzlement, abuse of power, and corrupt organisational cultures. in their work, blase and blase (2018) highlight  2018 informa uk limited, trading as taylor & francis group  
  476  editorial  how leaders and managers, in some schools, mistreat teachers and how this mistreatment and abuse, over time, can be personally devastating. other empirical work has focused on the actions or behaviours of a destructive or weak leader. evidence suggests that such individuals: are highly conscious of positional authority, particularly their own; will tend to shift blame and assume the success of others; won’t ever apologise for being wrong or unjust; will find authority from a small group of like-minded individuals while perversely championing the ‘collegiate’ nature of the organisation (danisman 2010; cohen 2016; furnham 2017) toxic leaders or managers, empirical findings suggest, tend to focus predominantly on issues of compliance, are conflict adverse in person, and normally have a powerful advocate, at some level in the organisation, supporting them in the shadows (padilla, hogan, and kaiser 2007). such leaders or managers often take any perceived breaches of their authority very personally and respond in a range of ways, e.g. aggressive emails, intimidating one to one conversations, an increase in workload for those who challenge them, and ignoring the bullying of certain individuals. they tend to hide their true leadership identity from others within the organisation, at all costs, thus maintaining a favourable persona with their closest allies and their superiors (krasikova, green, and lebreton 2013; neves 2014). for such leaders or managers, control is often the over-riding factor, sometimes accompanied by a severe lack of personal self-confidence or professional ineptitude which serves to inhibit any real dialogue and to restrict meaningful innovation. this concentration upon maintaining the mask of competence can affect others within the organisation in various negative ways, sometimes to the detriment of their mental health (shin, taylor, and seo 2012).  reflections much of the literature on organisational change focuses on the transformational practices of the formal leader and the resulting positive effects upon those within the organisation (leithwood and sun 2012). less is said about the way in which such influence could be detrimental and damaging, when in the wrong hands. the ‘black box’ of destructive or punitive leadership needs to be explored in greater depth in order to capture the experiences of those who find themselves at the sharp end of certain leadership behaviours and practices. more research studies are required that provide insights into the organisational contexts, cultures, and conditions that enable and, indeed, reinforce negative leadership and management behaviours. the available research evidence would suggest that ‘dark-side’ leadership traits are closely related to greater employee stress (furnham 2017), reduced job satisfaction (de clercq and belausteguigoitia 2017), and significantly lower levels of personal well-being (mathieu et al. 2014). more empirical evidence is certainly needed to illuminate the relationship between destructive leadership and organisational change, to document the nuances of such processes and their consequences on individual and organisational health (lennard and van dyne 2018). why is it the case, for example, that certain leaders and managers feel able and indeed personally empowered to misuse their influence and power in ways that are ultimately harmful to those they are charged with nurturing, supporting, and leading? thankfully, there are many talented, empathetic, energetic, and skilful leaders working at all levels in education. without question, they far outnumber those leaders who are careless, emotionally absent, controlling, and punitive. but such leaders, or rather micro managers, exist. it is time to acknowledge the darker side of leadership and  
  school leadership & management  477  actively break this mould by developing more leaders, within schools, colleges, and universities, who care deeply about those they are privileged to lead.  references blase, j. j., and j. blase. 2018. "mistreatment of teachers." in the tesol encyclopedia of english language teaching, 1–7. new jersey: john wiley & sons, inc. cohen, a. 2016. “are they among us? a conceptual framework of the relationship between the dark triad personality and counterproductive work behaviors (cwbs).” human resource management review 26: 69–85. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2015.07.003. cohen, a. 2018. counterproductive work behaviors: understanding the dark side of personalities in organizational life. london: routledge. danisman, a. 2010. “good intentions and failed implementations: understanding culture-based resistance to organizational change.” european journal of work and organizational psychology 19: 200–220. doi:10.1080/13594320902850541. de clercq, d., and i. belausteguigoitia. 2017. “overcoming the dark side of task conflict: buffering roles of transformational leadership, tenacity, and passion for work.” european management journal 35 (1): 78–90. fullan, m. 2018. the principal: three keys to maximizing impact. new york: john wiley & sons. furnham, a. 2017. “dark side correlates of job reliability and stress tolerance in two large samples.” personality and individual differences 117: 255–259. harris, a., and j. deflaminis. 2016. “distributed leadership in practice: evidence, misconceptions and possibilities.” management in education 30 (4): 141–146. krasikova, d. v., s. g. green, and j. lebreton. 2013. “destructive leadership: a theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda.” journal of management 39: 1308–1338. doi:10.1177/ 0149206312471388. leithwood, k., and j. sun. 2012. “the nature and effects of transformational school leadership: a metaanalytic review of unpublished research.” educational administration quarterly 48 (3): 387–423. lennard, a. c., and l. van dyne. 2018. “helping that hurts intended beneficiaries: a new perspective on the dark side of helping organizational citizenship behavior.” in the oxford handbook of organizational citizenship behavior. vol. 169. milton keynes: open university press. mathieu, c., c. s. neumann, r. d. hare, and p. babiak. 2014. “a dark side of leadership: corporate psychopathy and its influence on employee well-being and job satisfaction.” personality and individual differences 59: 83–88. neves, p. 2014. “taking it out on survivors: submissive employees, downsizing, and abusive supervision.” journal of occupational and organizational psychology 87: 507–534. doi:10.1111/joop.12061. neves, p., and b. schyns. 2018. “with the bad comes what change? the interplay between destructive leadership and organizational change.” journal of change management 18 (2): 91–95. padilla, a., r. hogan, and r. b. kaiser. 2007. “the toxic triangle: destructive leaders, susceptible followers, and conducive environments.” the leadership quarterly 18: 176–194. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.001. samier, e. a., and p. milley, eds. 2018. international perspectives on maladministration in education. london: routledge. schyns, b., and j. schilling. 2013. “how bad are the effects of bad leaders? a meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes.” the leadership quarterly 24: 138–158. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001. shin, j., m. taylor, and m. seo. 2012. “resources for change: the relationships of organizational inducements and psychological resilience to employees’ attitudes and behaviors toward organizational change.” academy of management journal 55: 727–748. doi:10.5465/amj.2010.0325. simonet, d. v., r. p. tett, j. foster, a. i. angelback, and j. m. bartlett. 2018. “dark-side personality trait interactions: amplifying negative predictions of leadership performance.” journal of leadership & organizational studies 25 (2): 233–250. woestman, d. s., and t. a. wasonga. 2015. “destructive leadership behaviors and workplace attitudes in schools.” nassp bulletin 99 (2): 147–163.  alma harris almaharris@swansea.ac.uk michelle jones swansea university school of education michelle.s.jones@swansea.ac.uk  view publication stats  
       


authors_index: todd, nathan r.
secondary_title_index: journal of psychology and theology
title_index: community psychology and liberation theologies: commonalities, collaboration, dilemmas
abstract_index:
       community psychology and liberation theologies share an emphasis on personal and social transformation through a process of liberation. emerging in the 1960s in the climate of social change movements, both fields serve to challenge the dominant discourse of how and why to perform the tasks of theology and psychology. my purpose in this article is to put these fields into dialogue, with a focus on commonalities, collaboration, and dilemmas. after presenting an overview of the fields and their commonalities, i posit that liberation theologies can enrich the why and where of liberating structural change, whereas community psychology can enrich the how with conceptual tools such as multiple levels of analysis and social change strategies. i conclude with dilemmas internal to these fields and inherent in collaboration. my goal is to promote theoretical and practical collaboration in the quest for liberatory social change.     

full_text_index:
       journal of psychology and theology  copyright 2011 by rosemead school of psychology  2011, vol. 39, no. 3, 200-210  biola university, 0091-6471/410-730  community psychology and liberation theologies: commonalities, collaboration, dilemmas nathan r. todd depaul university  commonalities, i posit that liberation theologies can enrich the why and where of liberating structural change, whereas community psychology can enrich the how with conceptual tools such as multiple levels of analysis and social change strategies. i develop these arguments from my social location as a whiteprotestant man, primarily through the lens of community psychology though also informed by my formal theological education. i conclude with dilemmas internal to each field and inherent in potential collaboration.  community psychology and liberation theologies share an emphasis on personal and social transformation through a process of liberation. emerging in the 1960s in the climate of social change movements, both fields serve to challenge the dominant discourse of how and why to perform the tasks of theology and psychology. my purpose in this article is to put these fields into dialogue, with a focus on commonalities, collaboration, and dilemmas. after presenting an overview of the fields and their commonalities, i posit that liberation theologies can enrich the why and where of liberating structural change, whereas community psychology can enrich the how with conceptual tools such as multiple levels of analysis and social change strategies. i conclude with dilemmas internal to these fields and inherent in collaboration. my goal is to promote theoretical and practical collaboration in the quest for liberatory social change.  overview and interrelated histories of community psychology and liberation theology community psychology  against a backdrop of the u.s. social movements in the 1960s, community psychology emerged as a field in reaction to clinical psychology and nurtured by governmental support for community mental health programs (dalton, elias, & wandersman, 2006; nelson & prilleltensky, 2005; rappaport, 1977). the formal birth of the field in the united states1 is credited to the 1965 swampscott conference, where a small gathering of social scientists envisioned a different type of psychology focused on prevention, alternatives to the medical model of mental illness, and social change (rickel, 1987). in the early years, the field developed conceptual tools for theory, research, and practice to counter the dominant person-blaming tendency of mainstream psychology (caplan & nelson, 1973; ryan, 1976). for example, a focus on social context and multiple  ommunity psychology and liberation theologies hold great potential to encourage personal and social transformation through a process of liberation. emerging in the 1960s in the climate of social change movements and influenced by the writings of paulo freire (1970/2000), both fields serve to challenge the dominant discourse of how and why to perform the tasks of theology and psychology (dokecki, 1982). my purpose in this article is to put these fields into dialogue, with a focus on commonalities, collaboration, and dilemmas. after presenting an overview of the fields and their  c  the author wishes to thank michael kral, benjamin hidalgo, urmitapa dutta, claudia holguin, and amy firest for their helpful feedback. correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to nathan r. todd, department of psychology, depaul university, 2219 north kenmore avenue, chicago, il 60614. e-mail: ntodd@depaul.edu.  1this article focuses on community psychology in the united states. see montero and varas diaz (2007) for a historical description of community psychology in latin america.  200  
  nathan r. todd  levels of analysis enabled an analysis of factors beyond the individual that impact individuals and groups (bronfenbrenner, 1979; kelly, 1966). in the 1980s the field moved from a focus on prevention to empowerment (rappaport, 1981), began to more actively pursue a focus on strengths and wellness (cowen, 2000), and embraced diversity and social justice as central to the field (dalton et al., 2006). a focus on studying social change interventions (e.g., citizen participation, community organizing) also set community psychology apart from other areas of psychology. more recent attention has been given to the role of community psychology in the process of liberation (watts & serrano-garcia, 2003) and the incorporation of a critical understanding of power (fisher, sonn, & evans, 2007; prilleltensky, 2003, 2008). i argue in this article that these conceptual and practical tools may help to inform liberation theologies in the how of promoting liberation. liberation theologies  there is not a singular liberation theology. rather, theologies of liberation refer to a collection of theologies that share a similar purpose and method of construction and purpose. methodologically, liberation theologies are constructed contextually, using experience as the starting place for theological reflection (dyrness, 1990; trout et al., 2003). as distinct from theological liberalism which uses personal experience to construct theology (stuart, 2003), liberation theologies construct theology by reflecting upon the common experience of oppression 2 by virtue of membership in particular social groups. specifically, social groups are constructed around categories (e.g., race/ethnicity, class, gender, or religious affiliation) with power differentials associated with these categories. some groups in society are in positions of dominance and hegemony (e.g., men, whites) in relation to other groups that are relegated to subordinate and oppressed positions (e.g., women, people of color). the common experience of systematic oppression based on social group membership serves as the starting point for theological reflection, with marginalization creating a particular lens to understand group experience, scripture, history, tradition, and to construct theology. through this lens of col2see adams, bell, and griffin (2007) for a description of systems of power, privilege, and oppression. i use language consistent with this perspective throughout when discussing liberation, oppression, and social groups.  201  lective oppression, theological questions of humanity, god, christ, the church, and eschatology 3 are reframed, reinterpreted, and rearticulated. furthermore, these theologies are historically situated in particular times and places, offering “concrete, practical, and historical theologies grounded in and continually referring to the actual practice of christian communities” (thistlethwaite & engel, 1990, p. 8). the purpose of a liberation theology is both prophetic and constructive: “it is both a theology of protest against unjust social orders and a theology aimed at social transformation toward greater justice for all” (thistlethwaite & engel, 1990, p. 8). many theologies of liberation have emerged in response to oppression. most often noted are the latin american theologies of liberation situated in the context of latin american poverty and class conflict, sparked by vatican ii and the medellin conference (bettenson & maunder, 1999; mackin, 2010; smith, 1991) and developed by liberation theologians such as the boff brothers (1986/1987), gutierrez (1971/1988), sobrino (1982/1987), martin-baro (1994), pedro casaldalgia, and ernesto cardenal (cabestrero & cardenal, 1981). in the u.s. liberatory theologies have centered on experiences of racism (black theology: cone, 1997, 2003, 2009), sexism (feminist theology: johnson, 2002; ruether, 1993) and the triple oppression of racism/classism/sexism experienced by black women (womanist theology: williams, 1995). other liberation theologies within (de la torre, 2004) and outside the u.s. (dyrness, 1990; ngewa, shaw, & tienou, 1998) also have been developed. the unifying theme of these theologies is reflection from a place of oppression, with an ultimate purpose of liberation and social transformation. similar to community psychology’s emergence as a critique and alternative to clinical psychology, liberation theologies are proposed as “constructive alternatives to dominant theologies”: challenging not only the method but the content and structure of christian theologies (thistlethwaite & engel, 1990, p. 9). for example, gutierrez (1971/1988), a latin american liberation theologian, prioritizes ortho-praxis (right action) over traditional ortho-doxy (right belief). in black theology god is understood not as the traditional unmoved mover detached from human affairs (pinnock, 2001), but rather as a god who suffers with and stands in solidarity with those 3eschatology refers to the study of the end times and last things  (schwarz, 2001).  
  202  community psychology and liberation theologies  who are oppressed (cone, 2006). furthermore, the traditional focus on the non-believer is subsumed by the focus on the non-person due to oppression and dehumanization (cone, 2003). the death and resurrection of christ is understood as subverting the social order, rather than as only for personal salvation (martin-baro, 1994). black theology focuses not on the traditional questions of the human and divine nature of christ, but rather articulates jesus as the incarnate black christ who fights for liberation (cone, 2003). the holy spirit is understood as the life giving force needed to empower individuals and groups to work for liberation rather than as simply encouraging christians to live a moral life (condefrazier, 2004; gutierrez, 1989/1991; karkkainen, 2002b). the church is no longer a place only for sacramental living, but becomes the place for oppressed people to organize for liberation (karkkainen, 2002a) and to denounce injustice and raise critical consciousness (martin-baro, 1994). the eschatological task focuses less on questions of the afterlife and instead seeks to work for a more just society in the present through social structural change (cone, 2003). these are but a few examples of how liberation theologies reinterpret traditional theological constructs in the service of liberation, possibly contributing to community psychology’s understanding of the why of liberation. interrelated histories  community psychology and theologies of liberation have an interconnected history (perilla, lavizzo, & ibanez, 2007). first, the ideas of freire (1970/2000) surrounding praxis, dialogics, and a model of problem-posing education influenced both the early writers of latin american liberation theologies and the evolving field of community psychology (prilleltensky, 2001). furthermore, as delineated by comas-diaz, lykes, and alarcon (1998), freire heavily influenced martin-baro, a latin american jesuit priest who drew from both freire and latin american liberation theologies in constructing a psychology of liberation (martin-baro, 1994; moane, 2003; montero, 2007). the martin-baro inspired psychology of liberation, in turn, has challenged the field of community psychology in the u.s. to incorporate ideas of liberation (watts & serrano-garcia, 2003) and power (prilleltensky, 2003, 2008) as central to the task of the field’s research, theory, and action. furthermore, community psychology has been directly  impacted by latin american liberation theologies, most prominently in the work of dokecki (1982) and trout et al. (2003). other community psychologists have noted the impact of liberation theology on their personal value system or professional work, though these references generally do not explicate what liberation theology actually is (dokecki, newbrough, & o’gorman, 2001; walsh-bowers, 2000). finally, latin american liberation theologies and black theology, although developed relatively independently (cone, 2003; cone & willmore, 1979), each constituted a similar methodological breakthrough where the experiences of oppression were centralized as legitimate for theological reflection. this new methodology provided other theologies of liberation the tools to begin the process of constructing new theologies of liberation from different experiences of oppression (de la torre, 2004). in summary, liberation theologies and community psychology have common inspiration in freire and martin-baros’ ideas of liberation. given this interrelated history, it is not surprising that significant overlap exists between the two fields. overlaps between community psychology and liberation theologies praxis and conscientization  flowing from the common influence of freire (1970/2000), community psychology and liberation theologies both centralize praxis and conscientization in theory and practice (dokecki, 1982). praxis refers to a process of reflection and action in order to enact social change whereas conscientization describes the development of a critical consciousness through the process of praxis. in latin american liberation theology, a focus on praxis is represented in the work of gutierrez (1971/1988), who elevates ortho-praxis (right action) above ortho-doxy (right belief), with the assertion that right action will illuminate right belief in a reflective cycle. other liberation theologies also encourage the reflection on oppressed experience to inform and spark action. in community psychology, praxis has been described as the unity of theory and action, a cornerstone within the field that guides theory, research, and action (partridge, 2008; prilleltensky, 2001). furthermore, both community psychology and liberation theologies embrace a cycle of reflective action summarized by trout et al. (2003) as: (1) action, (2) reflection, (3) planning new action strategies, and (4) further action.  
  nathan r. todd  liberation theologies add an extra dimension in the steps of reflection and planning: namely, reflecting theologically and spiritually on the outcomes and meanings of action. in both fields, this praxis process is used to produce thoughtful action in the pursuit of liberation. in both liberation theologies and community psychology, the praxis process leads to conscientization, or the development of a critical consciousness. critical consciousness, in turn, has been proposed as a first step in the process of liberation (freire, 1970/2000). furthermore, both community psychology and theologies of liberation use multiple sources of knowledge to inform the process of conscientization. social science research, economic theory, and critical theories such as marxism and feminism are utilized to construct a social-historical-critical understanding of current reality and social structures. this incorporation of a socio-historical-critical analysis is not standard practice within the larger psychological and theological disciplines (gutierrez, 1971/1988; reich, pinkard, & davidson, 2008). for example, in comparison to clinical psychology, community psychology has been more influenced by feminist (bond et al., 2000) and liberationist (watts & serrano-garcia, 2003) perspectives in shaping theory and practice. furthermore, as opposed to traditional theology, theologies of liberation have incorporated critical theories relevant to their particular experiences of oppression such as a marxist class analysis (guiterrez, 1971/1988), a feminist critique of patriarchy and sexism (johnson, 2002), and the writings of malcom x and dubois to understand racism and white supremacy (cone, 2003; hopkins, 2003). this incorporation of critical social analysis in theological reflection aids in conscientization and is integral in the praxis process for both community psychology and liberation theologies. participatory and communal  theologies of liberation and community psychology both operate under the premise that theory, research, and action are best pursued through participation in community. for example, the process of empowerment is hypothesized in community psychology to occur when individuals join together to obtain resources necessary to have control over life choices (zimmerman, 2000). although the impact of empowerment can be at the individual level, the empowerment process itself fundamentally occurs  203  through participation in a specific community setting where oppressed individuals, in community, empower themselves. furthermore, the field of community psychology has embraced the practice of participatory action research as a way to generate theory, action, and ultimately changes in the lives of participants (jason et al., 2003; lykes, 2004). from this approach, participation with others who share the same oppression becomes the primary vehicle for generating knowledge and social change, thereby challenging the dominant epistemologies in psychology regarding the construction of knowledge (cone, 2003; kidd & kral, 2005; walsh-bowers, 2000). liberation theologies are similarly adamant that the creation of theological knowledge can only occur as a communal enterprise, through deep participation and reflection on the process of liberation (thistlewaite & engel, 1990). although a liberation theology may be penned by a single author, the theology is a reflection upon a collective experience of oppression. overall, both community psychology and liberation theologies deeply value community and participation as the way to work for liberation. power  central to liberation theologies is an understanding of power as crucial in the process of liberation. power may be framed differently depending on the experience of oppression such as class struggle (gutierrez, 1971/1988), white domination and racism (cone, 2003), male domination and sexism (johnson, 2002; ruether, 1993), or an intersection of class/race/gender oppression (williams, 1995). regardless, a critical analysis of power is central to theological reflection. community psychology as a field has been less attentive to power, although feminist community psychology (bond et al., 2000; mulvey, gridley, & gawith, 2001) and the introduction of psychopolitical validity as a methodological criteria (prilleltensky, 2003) have encouraged the field to center power as a major organizing principle of the field (newbrough, speer, & lorion, 2008). psychopolitical validity implies that research and theory is meaningful and relevant (i.e., valid) only if the psychological and political operations of power are addressed. specifically, attention is given to how power impacts our construction of knowledge (e.g., epistemic validity) and leads to structural transformation (e.g., transformative validity). other scholars have proposed that increased attention to the language and conceptualization of  
  204  community psychology and liberation theologies  power (speer, 2008), delineating how power operates at multiple levels (christens & perkins, 2008), and situating power relationships within history (reich et al., 2008) are all necessary to illuminate an analysis of power. taken together, both liberation theologies and community psychology have potential to utilize a critical analysis of power as central to understanding societal injustice. the why/where of liberation theology and the how of community psychology liberation theologies and community psychology both have rationales (the why), locations (the where), and methods (the how), to strategize and engage in social change. for example, community psychology articulates values such as social justice that guide the field (the why), as well as articulates a process to determine how other values may resonate with the field (prilleltensky, 2001). liberation theologies also have many strategies for social change (the how), such as the formation of base communities where communities work for individual and structural level change (karkkainen, 2002a). at the same time, both fields may be enriched by learning from the strengths of the other field. in order to highlight these strengths for mutual growth, i focus on how liberation theologies provide a moral, spiritual, and value base (the why) for liberation, which may be of interest to community psychologists in expanding the value base to work for liberation. furthermore, liberation theologies are located in particular communities (the where) which may be of interest to community psychologists interested in forming local partnerships for liberation. at the same time, community psychology offers a number of conceptual (e.g., multiple levels of analysis) and practical (e.g., social change strategies) tools that may help to propel liberation theologians and liberatory communities forward in their quest for socio-structural change. this framework of focusing on strengths to enrich the other field is provided to explore possible collaboration between fields. “why” of liberation theologies  the motivation to work for social change or to give up privilege may rest upon an economic, moral, or spiritual rationale (goodman, 2001; parks daloz et al., 1996). liberation theologies provide rich and compelling spiritual reasons to work for justice, connect-  ing liberation as central to the practical activity of christians (cone, 2003). other examples noted earlier, such as god identifying with oppression, the holy spirit as the source of life who empowers, and christ as liberator, each connect spirituality and biblical interpretation with the task of liberation. room does not permit a full exploration of these connections, though even these brief examples illustrate how spiritual understandings may deepen commitment to the quest for liberation. beyond specific examples, cone (2003) explains that the only authentic christianity is one that is working for justice and social transformation. he goes on to argue that this task is necessary for both those who oppress and who are oppressed, and that the full humanity of both can only be realized in this quest for liberation—echoing parts of the theology of martin luther king jr. (king, 1963). these brief examples highlight the potential connections between a liberatory-based spirituality, and a motivation to work for liberation from a christian perspective. community psychology could learn from these connections in an effort to appreciate how different religious belief systems can buttress and support the pursuit of liberation. furthermore, it may be possible for community psychologists to collaborate with religious settings if both can form a value-based partnership based on a common value of liberation (nelson, prilleltensky, & macgillivary, 2001). “where” of liberation theologies  beyond providing spiritual motivation and moral reasons to engage in the process of liberation, liberation theologies also are located in particular places (the where), namely in local religious settings where people naturally gather in community around spiritual and religious practices. there has been a long standing call for community psychology to locate theory, research, and action within particular religious settings (kloos & moore, 2000; shinn, 1987) and theologies of liberation may help further connect community psychology to religious communities where the potential for collaboration exists. gathered around a common faith and experience of oppression, many naturally occurring communities exist at the local (congregations), national (denominations), and international (world wide church) levels. for examples, trout et al. (2003) worked with local base communities in africa to intersect community psychology with local religious efforts to work for liberation. furthermore, the act of doing liberation theology in local  
  nathan r. todd  communities could be part of a participation action research process, where not only are communities working for local change, but are also encouraged to reflect theologically on these experiences to generate knowledge and narratives about their own experiences. liberation theologies may provide frameworks that can be implemented within a particular religious setting, arguably an ideal connection for community psychologists interested in partnering with others to pursue liberation. “how” of community psychology: multiple levels of analysis  one framework central to community psychology is differentiating phenomena at multiple levels of analysis (bronfenbrenner, 1979; dalton et al., 2006; kelly, 1966). christens and perkins (2008) apply a multiple levels of analysis framework to the concept of power, examining power at multiple levels (e.g, micro/personal/psychological, meso/organizational/relational, macro/collective/structural) and along multiple domains (physical, economic, socio-cultural, and political). this idea of multiple levels of analysis can provide an organizational framework to enable communities to know where and how to address power in the process of liberation. furthermore, theological reflection regarding liberation and the operation of power might be more clearly understood by organizing reflection at different levels of analysis. for example, theological reflections on god’s relationship to the individual who is oppressed or the role of the holy spirit in promoting personal healing and wholeness from oppression could be conceptualized as a theological response to internalized oppression at the micro/personal level. at a meso/group/relational level, theological questions might focus on policies and practices that lead to oppression within a religious community (e.g., the exclusion of women from leadership roles), and how to construct a leadership structure and opportunities for participation that are just. at a macro/structural level, theological reflections may focus on congregational involvement in politics (sider, 2005), the relationship of the church with culture (niebuhr, 1951; tillich, 1964), or how the concept of evil can be located within social structures themselves (newbigin, 1989). these are but a few examples of how theological reflection can be organized at different levels, promoting clear thinking about where and how oppression is operating  205  and how to then design interventions at particular levels to promote liberation. “how” of community psychology: social change strategies  practically, community psychology offers a number of concrete, empirically-based social change strategies, which may aid in the movement from reflection to effective action in the cycle of praxis. social change strategies include: consciousness raising (nelson & prilleltensky, 2005), advocacy (sullivan & bybee, 1999), informing public policy (phillips, 2000), community and neighborhood organization (berkowitz, 2000), citizen participation (wandersman & florin, 2000), creating alternative settings (cherniss & deegan, 2000), community coalitions (allen, 2005), participatory action research methods (jason et al., 2003), understanding and utilizing social capital (coleman, 1988; putnam, 2000) and many others. providing clear social change strategies from community psychology may thereby help to connect abstract theological concepts to practical actions in the pursuit of liberation. the process of raising consciousness within a setting could then be followed with concrete strategies so that groups, motivated by their faith and liberatory goals, may have practical ways to act in the world to overcome oppression. dilemmas focusing on social structural change  even though community psychology and liberation theologies call for social structural change, both fields have inherent tensions in heeding this call. first, community psychology is linked with mainstream psychology. this association may make working for liberation difficult as some have observed that mainstream psychology itself serves to maintain rather than change social structures (nelson & prilleltensky, 2005). furthermore, many community psychologists are located in academic institutions, with particular demands and expectations as to what types of research and knowledge are valued in the career promotion process. ironically there may be structural barriers to discourage community psychologists from centralizing social change in their work. for liberation theologies, there is a tension of working for structural change within the mainstream practices and ideologies of many christians. first, charity is the dominant model for christian congregational involvement in social issues, with churches and individuals giving  
  206  community psychology and liberation theologies  money and time to address the basic needs of congregants and community members through providing food, clothing, and shelter (chaves, 2001). while this type of giving is a crucial and needed function that congregations play in society, it is predicated on an individualistic versus socio-structural problem definition, and may result in solutions for social problems at only the individual level. this focus on the individual may be due to particular understandings of the church as separate from society, or as one way to navigate tensions around church and state issues, since many structural changes may involve political activism. regardless of why, changing social structures has not traditionally been the dominant method for christians to be working for liberation. second, a focus on social structures by liberation theologies and community psychology may be irrelevant if not antithetical to particular christian faith systems. specifically, emerson and smith (2000) document how evangelical christians are generally anti-structural in their proposed solutions for racism, and instead focus on individual relationships as the appropriate solution to racism in the united states. this anti-structural and relationship-based approach is argued to draw on a calvinistic based individualism, the elevation of the importance of personal relationships with god and others, and a focus on personal responsibility (2000). conversely, jim wallis advocates for social structural change within an evangelical framework to address social problems, though it is difficult to tell how widely shared his views are with other evangelicals (wallis, 2005a, 2005b). these points are not intended to disparage evangelical christians, but rather to point out that particular practices and faith beliefs of many christians may lead to non-structural solutions to diminish oppression as well as to recognize the ways in which evangelicals may already connect their faith beliefs to structural change. in working for structural change, liberation theologies and community psychology may in actuality be working at counter purposes with other christian frameworks that focus only at the level of the individual. the dark side of religion  another tension in working for structural change is the possibility that religious institutions themselves are perpetrators of structural oppression. for example, black theology has been critical of the white church as perpetuating racism and white supremacy (cone, 2003), whereas feminist theology has been  critical of the patriarchal and sexist practices (e.g., women denied leadership roles) and beliefs (e.g., god as solely male) of many religious settings (johnson, 2002). this type of critique may be uncomfortable for many religious people, as congregations themselves may embody the hierarchical structures and attitudes that would implicitly need to be challenged and dismantled as a part of working for broader social change. thus, some religious groups may be part of the problem as defined by liberation theologies and community psychology. at the same time, these religious individuals and groups may be making a positive impact in the community or world. the tension is how to take seriously a liberatory theology or community psychology when such attention may challenge practices within the religious setting! this tension further spills over into the possible partnerships between community psychology and religious organizations. the field of community psychology has explicitly called for an exploration of both the positive and negative impacts of religion (maton, 2001; sarason, 2001; shinn, 1987), implying that community psychology may critique religious practices and organizations. why would religious organizations want to partner with community psychologists who may critique or expose components of religious practice that are negative? how can community psychologists promote liberation in a religious organization and not attend to power imbalances in the organization? given the uneasy history of psychology and religion, how can trust be built between community psychologists and religious organizations that would permit constructive critique to be offered in the context of a partnership in the larger service of liberation? these questions raised here are to further reflection on the inherent tensions in partnerships between community psychologists and religious organizations to promote liberation. “by whom and for whom” in the process of liberation  both liberation theologies and community psychology hold to the premise that liberation by whom and for whom refers to people from oppressed groups. the requirement that one is from the oppressed group in order to do theology or participate in action research creates a tension for many community psychologists and liberatory-minded religious people who are not members of the oppressed group, but who still may want to work for liberation. this is not a unique tension, and reflects similar dilemmas in feminism  
  nathan r. todd  (e.g., is it appropriate for men to identify as feminist or rather pro-feminist?) and critical race theory (e.g., can whites do black critical race theory?; delgado & stefancic, 1997). many community psychologists are members of multiple privileged groups (e.g., highly educated, men, white) or may have an intersection of oppressed and privileged group memberships (e.g., black men; sonn & fisher, 2003). how does such membership impact their ability to work for liberation? community psychology has partly addressed this tension by positioning the community psychologist not as a member of the oppressed group, but as a person with a unique skill set who can serve as a consultant, advocate, or resource for the group in the group’s process of empowerment or social change. this approach positions the community psychologist as a part of the process, but not as the expert or sole guider of the process. in this sense, nelson et al. (2001) propose developing partnerships based on a shared set of values in an effort to collaborate and stand in solidarity with oppressed groups. for liberation theologies, similar tensions arise. first, can people who are not members of the oppressed group do liberation theology? can scriptures and experience be interpreted through a lens of oppression if people do not share the same experience of oppression? liberation theologians would most likely respond that, in fact, people who do not share oppression are not positioned to take part in the construction and enactment of liberation theology, especially when these outsiders are from the dominant group (cone, 2003; thistlewaite & engel, 1990). second, what can or should people who are not members of the oppressed group learn from liberation theologies? can liberation theologies be tools for developing a critical consciousness in dominant group members, possibly even encouraging these dominant group members to identify as allies and advocates in the process of liberation? is it possible for dominant group members to stand in solidarity with those who are oppressed? third, what is the role of external critique from non-members of the oppressed group in informing various liberation theologies? james cone (2003), for instance, notes his deep frustration with white theologians who critiqued his black theology, noting how they did not apprehend his method or message. conversely, cone was grateful to outside critiques regarding his use of sexist language in early writings, a mistake that he apologized for and corrected in later editions of his work (cone, 2003). but where is the balance between heeding critique from the outside and  207  permitting such critique to function as further perpetuation of oppression? fourth, where do these communities of resistance and reflection exist, and are liberation theologies actually developed and practiced in congregations or are they mainly an academic exercise? many of the examples of communities practicing liberation theology focus on base communities outside of the u.s. in latin america (martin-baro, 1994) and africa (ngewa et al., 1998; trout et al., 2003). most congregations in the u.s. are predominately white and middle-class, reflecting the major dominant groups in u.s. society (chaves, 2001; dougherty, 2003). even though religious congregations are natural places for the pursuit of liberation, how do the white demographics constrain the possibility of organizing oppressed groups to do liberation theology? as a beginning response to these inherent tensions in constructing liberation theologies, i wonder about the development of liberatory theologies from the perspective of dominant groups. is it possible for dominant groups to start from a place of privilege in their theological reflection, reading the scriptures with an eye toward god’s call for justice and liberation? though dismissed in the early 1900s as liberal and socialistic (evans, 2001; marsden, 1991), how might resurrecting a social gospel theology (rauschenbusch, 1907, 1917) provide theological traction for privileged people to work for liberation? is it possible that dominant group members could productively work for justice through a social gospel focus on (a) social injustice as social sin, (b) working for justice as central to the process of salvation and redemption, and (c) embracing a kingdom of god theology that focuses on the church as a transformational institution? beyond a social gospel focus, how could a reading of scripture and understanding of tradition through a lens of justice provide motivation and inspiration to work for the liberation of all people? black theology, reflecting the teaching of martin luther king jr. (king, 1963), argues that oppression strips the oppressor of their humanity, and that both oppressor and oppressed need to engage in the process of liberation to restore the humanity of both (cone, 2003). can the fields of community psychology and liberation theologies provide a framework for critical reflection on power and privilege while at the same time providing the motivation and means for people who are privileged to work for liberation? these perennial questions have no simple answers. it is my hope that further critical reflection on these issues will facilitate theology and community psychology  
  208  community psychology and liberation theologies  practice that moves in the direction of liberation for all oppressed groups.  christens, b., & perkins, d. d. (2008). transdisciplinary, multilevel action research to enhance ecological and psychopolitical validity. journal of community psychology, 36, 214-231.  conclusion  coleman, j. (1988). social capital in the creation of human capital. american journal of sociology, 94 (supplement), s95-s120.  my hope is that community psychology and liberation theologies, grounded in a common history and overlapping concepts, can collaborate in the task of liberation. specifically, i argue that liberation theologies have the potential to inform the why and where of social change efforts whereas community psychology can contribute to the how with conceptual tools such as multiple levels of analysis and social change strategies. although dilemmas exist in this potential partnership, a common goal of pursuing liberation and overcoming oppression can arguably unite these two fields in their quest for social change. references adams, m., bell, l. a., & griffin, p. (2007). teachings for diversity and social justice (2nd ed.). new york: routledge. allen, n. e. (2005). a multi-level analysis of community coordinating councils. american journal of community psychology, 35, 49-63. berkowitz, b. (2000). community and neighborhood organization. in j. rappaport & e. seidman (eds.), handbook of community psychology (pp. 331-357). new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers. bettenson, h., & maunder, c. (eds.). (1999). documents of the christian church (rev. ed.). new york: oxford university press. (original work published 1968) boff, l., & boff, c. (1987). introducing liberation theology (p. burns trans.). new york: orbis books. (original work published 1986) bond, m. a., hill, j., mulvey, a., & terenzio, m. (2000). weaving feminism and community psychology. an introduction to a special issue. american journal of community psychology, 28, 585-597. bronfenbrenner, u. (1979). the ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. cabestrero, t., & cardenal, e. (1981). mystic of liberation: a portrait of pedro casaldaliga (d. d. walsh trans.). new york: orbis books. caplan, n., & nelson, s. d. (1973). on being useful: the nature and consequences of psychological research on social problems. american psychologist, 28, 199-211. chaves, m. (2001). congregations in america. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. cherniss, c., & deegan, g. (2000). the creation of alternative settings. in j. rappaport & e. seidman (eds.), handbook of community psychology (pp. 359-377). new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers.  comas-diaz, l., lykes, m. b., & alarcon, r. d. (1998). ethnic conflict and the psychology of liberation in guatemala, peru, and puerto rico. american psychologist, 53, 778-792. cone, j. h. (1997). black theology and black power. new york: orbis books. cone, j. h. (2003). a black theology of liberation (rev. ed.). new york: orbis books. cone, j. h. (2006). god of the oppressed. (rev. ed.). new york: orbis books. cone, j. h. (2009). a conversation with james cone. video from the 38th trinity institute national theological conference. retrieved february 12, 2009, from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v -1x5sz6q4fw cone, j. h., & willmore, g. s. (eds.). (1979). black theology: a documentary history, 1966-1979. new york: orbis books. conde-frazier, e. (2004). the holy spirit. in m. a. de la torre (ed.), handbook of u.s. theologies of liberation (pp. 31-45). st. louis, mo: chalice press. cowen, e. l. (2000). now that we all know that primary prevention in mental health is great, what is it? journal of community psychology, 28, 5-16. dalton, j. h., elias, m. j., & wandersman, a. (2006). community psychology: linking individuals and communities (2nd ed.). belmont, ca: wadsworth. de la torre, m. a. (ed.). (2004). handbook of u.s. theologies of liberation. st. louis, mo: chalice press. delgado, r., & stefancic, j. (1997). critical whiteness studies: looking behind the mirror. philadelphia, pa: temple university press. dokecki, p. r. (1982). liberation: movement in theology, theme in community psychology. journal of community psychology, 10, 185-196. dokecki, p. r., newbrough, j. r., & o’gorman, r. t. (2001). toward a community-oriented action research framework for spirituality: community psychological and theological p e r s p e c t i v e s . journal of community psychology, 29, 497-518. dougherty, k. d. (2003). how monochromatic is church membership? racial-ethnic diversity in religious community. sociology of religion, 64, 65-85. dyrness, w. a. (1990). learning about theology from the third world. grand rapids, mi: zondervan. emerson, m. o., & smith, c. (2000). divided by faith: evangelical religion and the problem of race in america. new york: oxford university press. evans, c. h. (ed.). (2001). the social gospel today. louisville, ky: westminster john knox press. fisher, a. t., sonn, c. c., & evans, s. d. (2007). the place and function of power in community psychology: philosophical and practical issues. journal of applied social psychology, 17, 258-267.  
  nathan r. todd freire, p. (2000). pedagogy of the oppressed (rev. ed., m. b. ramos, trans.). new york: continuum. (original work published 1970) goodman, d. j. (2001). promoting diversity and social justice: educating people from privileged groups. thousand oaks: ca; sage. gutierrez, g. (1988). a theology of liberation: history, politics, and salvation (rev. ed., c. inda & j. eagleson, trans.). new york: orbis books. (original work published 1971) gutierrez, g. (1991). the god of life (m. j. o’connell, trans.). new york: orbis books. (original work published 1989)  209 moane, g. (2003). bridging the personal and the political: practices for a liberation psychology. american journal of community psychology, 31, 91-101. montero, m. (2007). the political psychology of liberation: from politics to ethics and back. political psychology, 28, 517 – 533. montero, m., & varas diaz, n. (2007). latin american community psychology: development, implications, and challenges within a social change agenda. in s. m. reich, m. riemer, i.prilleltensky, & m. montero (eds.), international community psychology: history and theories, (pp. 63 – 98). new york: springer.  hopkins, d. n. (2003). shoes that fit our feet: sources for a constructive black theology. new york: orbis books.  mulvey, a., gridley, h., & gawith, l. (2001). convent girls, feminism, and community psychology. journal of community psychology, 29, 563 – 584.  jason, l. a., keys, c. b., suarez-balcazar, y., taylor, r. r., davis, m. i., durlak, j. a., isenberg, d. h. (eds.). (2003). participatory community research: theories and methods in action. washington d.c.: american psychological association.  nelson, g., & prilleltensky, i. (eds.). (2005). community psychology: in pursuit of liberation and well-being. new york: palgrave macmillan.  johnson, e. a. (2002). she who is: the mystery of god in feminist theological discourse (rev. ed.). new york: the crossroad publishing company. karkkainen, v. m. (2002a). an introduction to ecclesiology: ecumenical, historical and global perspectives. downers grove, il: intervarsity press. karkkainen, v. m. (2002b). pneumatology: the holy spirit in ecumenical, international, and contextual perspective. grand rapids, mi: baker academic. kelly, j. g. (1966). ecological constraints on mental health services. american psychologist, 21, 535-539. kidd, s. a., & kral, m. j. (2005). practicing participatory action research. journal of counseling psychology, 52, 187-195. king, m. l. jr. (1963). letters from birmingham jail. in m. c. sernett (ed.), african american religious history: a documentary witness (2nd ed.) (pp. 519-535). durham, nc: duke university press. kloos, b., & moore, t. (2000). the prospect and purpose of locating community research and action in religious settings. journal of community psychology, 28, 119-137. lykes, m. b. (2004). creative arts and photography in participatory action research in guatemala. in p. reason & h. bradbury (eds.), handbook of action research: the concise paperback edition (pp. 269-278). thousand oaks, ca: sage. lykes, m. b., blanche, m. t., & hamber, b. (2003). narrating survival and change in guatemala and south africa: the politics of representation and a liberatory community psychology. american journal of community psychology, 31, 79-90. mackin, r. s. (2010). in word and deed: assessing the strength of progressive catholicism in latin america, 1960-1970s. sociology of religion, 71, 216-242. marsden, g. m. (1991). understanding fundamentalism and evangelicalism. grand rapids, mi: william b. eerdmans. martin-baro, i. (1994). writings for a liberation psychology. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. maton, k. i. (2001). spirituality, religion, and community psychology: historical perspective, positive potential, and challenges. journal of community psychology, 29, 605 – 613.  nelson, g., prilleltensky, i., & macgillivary, h. (2001). building value-based partnerships: toward solidarity with oppressed groups. american journal of community psychology, 29, 649-677. newbigin, l. (1989). the gospel in a pluralist society. grand rapids, mi: eerdmans. newbrough, j. r., speer, p. w., & lorion, r. p. (2008). a challenge for community research and action: an introduction to the special issue. journal of community psychology, 36, 113-115. ngewa, s., shaw, m., & tienou, t. (eds.). (1998). issues in african christian theology. nairobi, kenya: east african educational publishers. niebuhr, h. r. (1951). christ and culture. san francisco: harper. parks daloz, l. a., keen, c. h., keen, j. p., & daloz parks, s. (1996). common fire: leading lives of commitment in a complex world. boston: beacon press. partridge, w. l. (2008). praxis and power. journal of community psychology, 36, 161-172. perilla, j. l., lavizzo, e., & ibanez, g. (2007). toward a community psychology of liberation. in e. aldarondo (ed.), advancing social justice through clinical practice (pp. 291-311). mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates publishers. phillips. d. a. (2000). social policy and community psychology. in j. rappaport & e. seidman (eds.), handbook of community psychology (pp. 397-419). new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers. pinnock, c. h. (2001). the most moved mover. grand rapids, mi: baker academic. prilleltensky, i. (2001). value-based praxis in community psychology: moving toward socialjustice and social action. american journal of community psychology, 29, 747-778. prilleltensky, i. (2003). understanding, resisting, and overcoming oppression: toward psychopolitical validity. american journal of community psychology, 31, 195-201. prilleltensky, i. (2008). the role of power in wellness, oppression, and liberation: the promise of psychopolitical validity. journal of community psychology, 36, 116-136. putnam, r. d. (2000). bowling alone: the collapse and revival of american community. new york: simon & schuster.  
  210  community psychology and liberation theologies  rappaport, j. (1977). community psychology: values, research, & action. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. rappaport, j. (1981). in praise of paradox: a social policy of empowerment over prevention. american journal of community psychologist, 9, 1-21. rauschenbusch, w. (1907). christianity and the social crisis. louisville, ky: westminster john knox press. rauschenbusch, w. (1917). a theology for the social gospel. louisville, ky: westminster john knox press. reich, s. m., pinkard, t., & davidson, h. (2008). including history in the study of psychological and political power. journal of community psychology, 36, 173-186. rickel, a. u. (1987). the 1965 swampscott conference and future topics for community psychology. american journal of community psychology, 15, 511-513.  sullivan, c. m., & bybee, d. (1999). reducing violence using community based advocacy for women with abusive partners. journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 67, 45-53. thistlethwaite, s. b., & engel, m. p. (eds.). (1990). life every voice: constructing christian theologies from the underside. san francisco: harper collins. tillich, p. (1964). theology of culture. new york: oxford university press. trout, j., dokecki, p. r., newbrough, j. r., & o’gorman, r. t. (2003). action research on leadership for community development in west africa and north america: a joining of liberation theology and community psychology. journal of community psychology, 31, 129-148. wallis, j. (2005a). faith works: how to live your beliefs and ignite positive social change. new york: random house.  ruether, r. r. (1993). sexism and god talk. boston: beacon press.  wallis, j. (2005b). god’s politics: why the right gets it wrong and the left doesn’t get it. san francisco: harper.  ryan, w. (1976). blaming the victim. new york: random house.  walsh-bowers, r. (2000). a personal sojourn to spiritualize community psychology. journal of community psychology, 28, 221-236.  sarason, s. b. (2001). concepts of spirituality and community psychology. journal of community psychology, 29, 599-604. schwarz, h. (2001). eschatology. grand rapids, mi: william b. erdmans publishing company. shinn, m. (1987). expanding community psychology’s domain. american journal of community psychology, 15, 555-574. sider, r. j. (ed.). (2005). toward an evangelical public policy: political strategies for the health of the nation. grand rapids, mi: baker books. smith, c. (1991). the emergence of liberation theology: racial religion and social movement theory. chicago, il: university of chicago press. sobrino, j. (1987). jesus in latin america (orbis books trans.). new york: orbis books. (original work published 1982) sonn c. c., & fisher, a. t. (2003). identity and oppression: differential responses to an in-between status. american journal of community psychology, 31, 117-128. speer, p. w. (2008). social power and forms of change: implications for psychopolitical validity. journal of community psychology, 36, 199-213. stuart, e. (2003). gay and lesbian theologies: repetitions with critical difference. burlington, vt: ashgate.  wandersman, a., & florin, p. (2000). citizen participation and community organizations. in j. rappaport & e. seidman (eds.), handbook of community psychology (pp. 247-272). new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers. watts, r. j., & serrano-garcia, i. (2003). the quest for a liberating community psychology: an overview. american journal of community psychology, 31, 73-78. williams, d. s. (1995). sisters in the wilderness: the challenge of womanist god-talk. new york: orbis books. zimmerman, m.a. (2000). empowerment theory: psychological, organizational and community levels of analysis. in j. rappaport & e. seidman (eds.), handbook of community psychology (pp. 43-63). new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers.  author todd, nathan r. address: 2219 n. kenmore avenue, chicago, il 60614. email: ntodd@depaul.edu. title: assistant professor, department of psychology. depaul university. degree: ph.d., university of illinois urbana-champaign. areas of specialization: clinical/community psychology, religious settings, whiteness, social justice.  
       


authors_index: nwagbara, ucheoma
secondary_title_index: journal of law, policy and globalization
abstract_index:
       this paper examines the changing concept of pluralism in the united states, especially, in the aftermath of president trump’s zeitgeist hard line immigration policy. trump’s immigration agenda is forcefully manifested in ultra-nationalism tendencies including “trade war” (economy, 2019), “economic populism” (lenz and gunter, 2017), “separation of young children from their parents at the border,” “claim of presidential powers to nullify the constitutional right to birthright citizenship” (shapiro, 2019), “white identity politics” (confessore, 2016), “racial resentment” (harris, 2018), “racist nativist micro-aggressions” (gomez and huber, 2019), inciting racist and xenophobic rhetoric, such as “anti-mexicanism and islamophobia” (huerta, 2017, p. 57) by the president in the push to advance his “make america great again” and “america first” agendas. the meanness associated
  with trump’s rhetoric evokes isolationism, anti-multiculturalism, intolerance, hate, and undermines america’s leadership role in the world. bill gates, cofounder of microsoft corporation, is not remiss: “america first worldview concerns me. it’s not that the united states shouldn’t look out for its people. the question is how best to do that. my view is that engaging with the world has proven over time to benefit everyone, including americans, more than withdrawing does” (gates and gates, 2018). using trump’s efforts to end deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) program as a case study, this paper will discuss the administration’s attempts to roll back american pluralism. in addition, the paper will discuss the political ascendency of trump
  and its unfolding implications. furthermore, the paper will discuss the ideals of america’s pluralism not only as the pillar of the american way, but also, as the important glue that binds and fosters american diversity, and boosts the u.s. economy. the paper will utilize nationalism theory framework of analysis to conceptualize and explain trump’s brand of nationalism in contemporary global politics. the paper will add to the body of knowledge and literature on the subject of nationalism. the terms populism and nationalism will be used interchangeably.     

title_index:
       immigration and politics in the 21st century: the rise of nationalism versus pluralism in the united states     

full_text_index:
       journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  immigration and politics in the 21st century: the rise of nationalism versus pluralism in the united states ucheoma nwagbara, phd department of public policy, nelson mandela college of government and social sciences southern university and a&m college, baton rouge, louisiana, usa abstract this paper examines the changing concept of pluralism in the united states, especially, in the aftermath of president trump’s zeitgeist hard line immigration policy. trump’s immigration agenda is forcefully manifested in ultra-nationalism tendencies including “trade war” (economy, 2019), “economic populism” (lenz and gunter, 2017), “separation of young children from their parents at the border,” “claim of presidential powers to nullify the constitutional right to birthright citizenship” (shapiro, 2019), “white identity politics” (confessore, 2016), “racial resentment” (harris, 2018), “racist nativist micro-aggressions” (gomez and huber, 2019), inciting racist and xenophobic rhetoric, such as “anti-mexicanism and islamophobia” (huerta, 2017, p. 57) by the president in the push to advance his “make america great again” and “america first” agendas. the meanness associated with trump’s rhetoric evokes isolationism, anti-multiculturalism, intolerance, hate, and undermines america’s leadership role in the world. bill gates, cofounder of microsoft corporation, is not remiss: “america first worldview concerns me. it’s not that the united states shouldn’t look out for its people. the question is how best to do that. my view is that engaging with the world has proven over time to benefit everyone, including americans, more than withdrawing does” (gates and gates, 2018). using trump’s efforts to end deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) program as a case study, this paper will discuss the administration’s attempts to roll back american pluralism. in addition, the paper will discuss the political ascendency of trump and its unfolding implications. furthermore, the paper will discuss the ideals of america’s pluralism not only as the pillar of the american way, but also, as the important glue that binds and fosters american diversity, and boosts the u.s. economy. the paper will utilize nationalism theory framework of analysis to conceptualize and explain trump’s brand of nationalism in contemporary global politics. the paper will add to the body of knowledge and literature on the subject of nationalism. the terms populism and nationalism will be used interchangeably. keywords: immigration, nationalism, pluralism, daca, economy, globalization, and trump doi: 10.7176/jlpg/99-06 publication date:july 31st 2020 i. introduction what is pluralism? while there is no apparent universal definition of pluralism, it will be in order to consider some prominent characterizations of pluralism. “pluralism assumes that diversity is beneficial to society and that autonomy should be enjoyed by disparate functional or cultural groups within a society, including religious groups, trade unions, professional organizations, and ethnic minorities” (encyclopedia britannica n.d.). scholars harold laski (1893-1950), frederic maitland (1850-1906), richard tawney (1880-1962), and george douglas (1869-1902) argued “pluralism is necessary to integrate the individual in a social context that would give him [her] a sense of community” (encyclopedia britannica n.d.). robert dahl (1978, p. 196) stressed the “role pluralism play in society by socioeconomic order, regime, political institutions, language, ideology, region, ethnic group, national identification, race, etc.” “to prevent the manifestation of these cleavages [diversity] in political life” dahl argued “would doubtless...deny everyone else practically all access to political resources” (dahl, 1978, p. 196) at the detriment of larger society. dahl (1997, p. 121) “pluralism is necessary, inevitable, and desirable,” because “it is a natural product of freedom and is generally good for human beings. diversity gives people more choice and leads to self-understanding” (bailey and braybrooke, 2003, p. 112). moreover, for “the democracies of today, to stay relevant and effective,” continued bailey and braybrooke (2003, p. 100) “they must cope not only with the realities of enormously populous societies and with social pluralism inside and outside national boundaries, but also with a globalizing modern market economy.” tocqueville (1805-1859) in his study of american institutions noted of not only america’s “diversity of interests or of opinions” (tocqueville, 1835, p. 432), but also, “pointed out the merit of voluntary associations as the basis of social pluralism, which in turn nurtures democracy” (arat, 1988, p. 21). unfortunately, pluralism’s hallmarks of “strength in diversity,” “integration,” “community,” “group,” globalization are under attack in the trump era. in the gab of trump’s populism rhetoric, “muslim refugees, largely from war torn iraq and syria, are an existential threat to national cultures; immigrants drain national coffers; foreigners don’t learn the national language and cannot assimilate into local society; immigrants are terrorists, rapists, criminals” (sadiq and filindra, 2017, p. 3). trump built his candidacy and presidency around hard line immigration platform, “vowing 49  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  to build a wall along the u.s. – mexico border and cut legal immigration by half” (dawsey, 2018). announcing his bid for the american presidency in june 2015, to much derision, mr. trump stereotypically declared: “when mexico sends its people, they're not sending their best...they're sending people who have lots of problems...they're bringing drugs. they're bringing crime. they're rapists...” (the washington post, june 16, 2015). then u. s. house of representatives speaker, paul ryan, called trump’s slurs against a mexicanamerican judge, gonzalo curiel, “a textbook case of racism” (caygle, 2016). on january 27, 2017, barely one week into his presidency, citing “keeping our country safe” and reinforcing campaign promise to “make america great again,” trump signed an executive order suspending all refugee admissions and temporarily banned people from seven predominantly muslim countries from entering the united states. [the seven muslim nations are iraq, iran, syria, libya, somalia, sudan, and yemen, prompting the name “muslim ban”]. the ban order has suffered several setbacks in the courts. however, in june 2018 the u.s. supreme court upheld the travel ban, on the grounds of “national security justifications” (howe, 2018). in august 2017, president trump defended neo-nazis white nationalists who protested in charlottesville, virginia, against the removal of a statue of confederate general robert e. lee, saying they included “some very fine people” (gray, 2017). in another racist pronouncement reminiscent of president trump’s routine “history of demeaning comments about non-white immigrants” (dawsey, 2018) and race baiting, during a january 2018 white house meeting with lawmakers to discuss protecting immigrants from haiti, el salvador, and african countries, he said: “why are we having all these people from shithole countries come here?...why do we need more haitians?...keep them out” (dawsey, 2018). according to a recent report by the pew research center, “majority of americans (56%) believe that president trump has made race relations in the united states worse” (horowitz, brown and cox, 2019). in addition, “about two-thirds of americans believe that it has become more common for people to express racist views since trump became president” (horowitz, brown and cox, 2019). congressman jerry nadler (d-new york), chair, u.s. house judiciary committee, observed: "the president's [trump] rhetoric fans the flames with language that, whether intentional or not, may motivate and embolden white supremacist movements" (goodkind, 2019). or, what bahar (2020) described as “toxic rhetoric against immigrants coming from president trump among others.” since assuming office, trump has placed immigration at the forefront of his policy agenda. he has cracked down on undocumented immigrants, proposed stricter standards for admission into the united states, presided over a surge in immigration arrests, and moved to end daca (brookings institution, 2017). at the same time, he has embraced fringe groups and appointed “hard-right nationalists” (peters, 2016) and “extremist advisers” (southern poverty law center, (splc) 2017) into his administration, such as, stephen bannon, a former editor of breitbart news (alt-right movement platform), as his chief white house strategist and counselor (taub, 2016). trump also appointed julie kirchner as chief of staff at the u.s. customs and border protection (cbp), kirchner had prior served as the executive director of an anti-immigrant hate group, the federation for american immigration reform (splc, 2017). furthermore, trump appointed stephen miller a senior presidential adviser, regardless of the fact that he is “aligned with far-right extremism” (hayden, 2019) and advocate “racial superiority” (cohan, 2017) and “largely seen by white nationalists as an ally” (splc, 2017, p. 11). the push back on pluralism and fervent anti-immigration policies that is dominating the politics of the more stable and advanced industrial states, especially the united states has surprised many in policymaking circles across the globe (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). rohac, kennedy, and singh (2018, p. 1) noted “increasing number of extreme populist politicians are making headway across the world’s established democracies...“there are rising tides of exclusionary and authoritarian populism.” human rights watch (2017) added that there is “dangerous rise of populism.” the extremism and meanness associated with this recent phenomenon is all the more surprising because it comes at a time of a supposedly “global integration” and improvement in the human condition with the recent triumph of the liberal order and supposed vindication of capitalism and the free market as the best way to produce the greatest wealth of nations across the globe (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). data available from such renowned agencies as the united nations, world bank, organization for economic cooperation and development (oecd) and other world bodies, development indicators such as the gross domestic product (gdp), personal incomes, and social improvement indexes are rising. see tables 1 and 2. (gdp is the monetary value of all finished goods and services produced in a country within a specific time period).  50  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  table 1: gross domestic product in selected regions, 1990-2015 ( billion) region 1990 2000 2015 % change oecd members 18,684 27,358 46,301 148 europe and central asia 8,815 10,005 20,077 128 east asia and pacific 4,707 8,280 21,680 361 north america 6,575 11,031 19,593 198 latin america and caribbean 1,168 2,262 5,294 353 middle east and north africa 544 966 3,141 478 south asia 412 629 2,690 553 sub-saharan africa 300 368 1,590 430 average 5,151 7,612 15,046 331 source: world bank – world development indicators 2017 http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.mktp.cd?view chart table 2: physical quality of life indicators (pqli) in selected regions, 1996 v. 2015 1996 2015 basic infant life basic infant life literac mortality/1,00 expectanc literac mortality/1,00 expectanc region y (%) 0 live births y y (%) 0 live births y oecd members 84.1 12.9 76.1 90.9 6.1 80.1 europe and central asia 85.5 22.4 72.2 92.4 10.1 76.9 east asia and pacific 67.1 36.9 70.1 91.8 14.8 74.9 north america 7.5 76.2 5.6 79.2 latin america and caribbean 63.6 32.9 70.0 76.9 15.6 74.9 middle east and north africa 59.8 40.0 68.5 75.3 20.2 72.9 south asia 47.1 77.9 61.2 74.9 43.3 68.1 sub-saharan africa 26.6 102.5 49.9 42.3 57.9 58.6 average 62.0 41.6 68.0 77.8 21.7 73.2 source: world bank – world development indicators 2017 year  http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators http://data.worldbank.org/topic/education table 1 show that in the past two decade world regions have achieved remarkably high growth for sustained periods. from 1990-2015, regional gdp growth increased dramatically by average of more than 300%. south asia recorded the highest gdp growth at more than 500%, followed by middle east and north africa at nearly 500%, and sub-saharan africa at more than 400% during this period. likewise, in table 2, the physical quality of life index (pqli) gap has been cut in half in just two decades. the gap closing between 1996 and 2015 performances, highlighting lowered infant mortality (21.7 per 1,000 live births v. 41.6 per 1,000 live births), increased life expectancy (73.2 years v. 68 years), and rising literacy rates (77.8% v. 62.0%). the rest of the paper is organized as follows: section ii provides background on nationalism theory pertinent to “america first” doctrine. section iii discusses american pluralism. section iv presents the trump phenomenon. section v examines immigration and the american dream. section vi addresses deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca). section vii dwells on president trump rescind daca. section viii deals on daca and the u.s. economy. section ix concludes the paper. ii. nationalism theory applied to “america first” doctrine if the aforementioned in tables 1 and 2 is the case, then the question that immediately comes to mind is what is the reason for the anti-pluralism rage that has gripped the advanced societies like the united states, great britain, france, russia, which has put the whole world on edge. this development has been well documented, not the least by the reputed economist of london. the magazine wrote: “it is troubling how many countries are shifting from universal, civic nationalism to blood-and soil ethnic sort...a romantic and exclusive belief in race and tradition as the wellspring of national belonging” (the economist, november 19, 2016). regarding the concept of nationalism theory correlation with “america first” ideology advocated by president trump, sutherland (2005, p. 185) suggests that nationalism is “valuable in describing how the ideological construction of the nation aims to achieve a hegemonic re-articulation of the national ‘nodal point.’ in the process, “minority and majority nationalisms conflict as both compete for hegemony” (sutherland, 2005, p. 185), power, and resources. hence, ting (2008, p. 453) “nation is understood as a mental construct, and the formation of national identity as a 51  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  dynamic, contentious historical process of social construction.” by so meaning, according to kohn (1939, pp. 1014 and 1019; see also kohn, 1945) “nationalism” come to be viewed “as a state of mind, permeating the large majority of a people and claiming to permeate all its members, which recognizes the nation-state as the ideal form of political organization and the nationality as the source of all creative cultural energy and of economic well-being...for nationalism represents "vested interests," not only political and economic, but also intellectual and emotional, of an intensity and extensity shown by no previous idea.” mudde (2013, p. 1) “populism [nationalism] is best defined as a thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately divided into two homogeneous and warring groups, ‘the pure people’ versus ‘the corrupt elite’, and which argues that politics should be an expression of the volonte generale (general will) of the people.” continuing, mudde (2013, p. 1) “contrary to claims by the tea party and other populist movements around the world that populism is essentially democratic, it is against liberal democracy because it hinders constitutionalism and is a form of extreme majoritarianism. given that constitutionalism limits both popular sovereignty and majority rule, populism is theoretically opposed to constitutionalism.” however, rohac, kennedy, and singh (2018, p.1) are of the view “not all populism is intrinsically bad. at times, populist ideas and energies have contributed to the advancement and preservation of liberal democracy.” asari, halikiopoulou, and mock (2008, p. 1) corroborated this phenomenon and concluded: “strong national identity, albeit of a particular kind, is prerequisite to a stable and functioning multicultural society.” additional conceptual perspectives in the literature on nationalism vis-a-vis anti-pluralism further helps to explain and understand the current dynamics of trump’s immigration policy. kramer (1997, p. 525) postulated, “nationalism is one of the decisive forces in modem history and that its significance demands careful, critical analysis.” breuilly (1999, p. 222) wrote: “it is essential to take the intellectual history of nationalism seriously, precisely because without so doing one can have only an incomplete understanding of the political significance of nationalism.” alter (1994, p. 4) adds: “nationalism is both an ideology and a political movement which holds the nation and sovereign nation-state to be crucial indwelling values, and which manages to mobilize the political will of a people or a large section of the population." coakley (2009, p. 274) “ethno-national [nationalism] competition are also influenced by geographical factors (such as patterns of territorial concentration, or of dispersion), which determine the options for collective action. these realities, with other considerations, domestic and international, set the stage for particular patterns of political mobilization—patterns that may in certain circumstances spill over into armed violence.1 this interplay between ethno-cultural balance, socioeconomic reality, and political mobilization varies considerably from case to case.” in a complementary perspective, ethnicity [nationalism] can be viewed as “the employment and or mobilization of ethnic identity or differences to gain advantage in situations of competition, conflict or cooperation” (osaghae, 1995, p. 11). nnoli (1978) argued “ethnicity [nationalism] arises when relations between ethnic groups are competitive rather than cooperative. it is characterized by cultural prejudice and political discrimination.” osaghae (1995) and nnoli (1978) were both quoted in agbiboa (2013, p. 5). the electoral victory of trump in the united states with the insular promise to build a wall on the mexican border, deport illegal aliens, and “make america great again” is the biggest proof yet of the power of the recent populist upsurge that might yet put brakes on the continued globalist trend (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). before it, populist uprising in great britain succeeded in derailing england’s deepening ties with the european union (eu), culminating in “brexit” passage in june 2016 (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). pro-brexit and nationalist supporter, then prime minister, theresa may, has said: “if you believe you’re a citizen of the world, you’re a citizen of nowhere. you don’t understand what the very word ‘citizenship’ means...brexit must mean control of the number of people who come to britain from europe” (cohen, 2017). in france, marine le pen, the leader of the far right national front (fn) political party and losing candidate in the 2017 french presidential election, has not only promised to pull france out of the euro and hold “frexit” referendum on membership of the eu, but also, to curb the “gigantic wave” of immigration (the economist, november 19, 2016). le pen went on to describe trump’s presidential victory as "an additional stone in the building of a new world," and as for illegal immigrants, "have no reason to stay in france, these people broke the law the minute they set foot on french soil" (nowak and branford, 2017). in germany, frauke petry, leader of the alternative for germany (afd) party that is “anti-immigration, anti-eu” has said “asylum needs limits,” “muslim immigrants come here with attitudes that are so way out of our sort of common behavior and european attitudes,”...“it’s simply a lie by the government that these migrants will fit into our society” (schwartz, 2017). in russia, president putin has also stoked ethnic nationalism. he promotes ethnically defined and dominated russia as “a state civilization held together by the russian people, the russian language, russian culture, and the russian orthodox 1 according to america’s federal bureau of investigation (fbi), hate crimes rose alarming 17 percent in 2017 in the united states. the broader context of this development is crucial because the report covers the first year of trump’s presidency, and he’s been repeatedly criticized, from his campaign to his presidential statements and tweets, of stoking racist sentiment, particularly against immigrants and refugees (lopez, 2018), https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/11/13/18091646/fbi-hate-crimes-2017. fbi, 2017 hate crime statistics, https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2017 and https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr.  52  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  church...integration of the post-soviet space as an alternative to uncontrolled immigration” (the economist, february 25, 2015; russian times, january 23, 2012). in austria and germany, martin sellner and his cohorts are on a mission to bring the youths into the fold by leading and using his ‘identitarian movement” to replicate american “alt-right” (which helped to elect trump) in a bid to “preserve national differences”(the economist, november 12, 2013). iii. american pluralism and the rise of trump the dream of “coming to america” by those who want to build better lives for themselves and their families is as american as the apple pie. america is commonly referred to as the “mosaic,” “melting pot,” “nation of immigrants,” “salad bowl,” “land of the free,” and “god’s own country.” above all, the motto of the united states is: e pluribus unum; latin for “out of many, one.” these sobriquets not only transverse the fabric of american life, they are also at the core of americanism and continue to be vital to the american psyche, culture, and progress. as a demonstration, in its latest report titled the integration of immigrants into american society, the influential national academy of sciences, engineering, and medicine stated: “the united states prides itself on being a nation of immigrants, and the nation has a long history of successfully absorbing people from across the globe. the successful integration of immigrants and their children contributes to economic vitality and to a vibrant and ever-changing culture. americans have offered opportunities to immigrants and their children to better themselves and to be fully incorporated into u.s. society, and in exchange immigrants have become americans - embracing an american identity and citizenship, protecting the united states through service in its military, fostering technological innovation, harvesting its crops, and enriching everything from the nation’s cuisine to its universities, music, and art...today, the 41 million immigrants in the united states represent 13.1 percent of the u.s. population. the u.s. born children of immigrants, the second generation, represent another 37.1 million people, or 12 percent of the population. thus, together the first and second generations account for one out of four members of the u.s. population. whether they are successfully integrating is therefore a pressing and important question.” foreign-born individuals migrate to the united states for multiple reasons as in the colonial times when immigrants migrated to the new world (okoronkwo, 2018). “many immigrants came to america seeking greater economic opportunity, while some, such as the pilgrims in the early 1600s, arrived in search of religious freedom” (http://www.history.com/topics/u-s-immigrationbefore1965). upon entry into the united states, many immigrants and refugees or “the dispossessed” (badkhen, 2016) face challenges including but not limited to culture shock, discrimination, language barriers, ethnic bias, negative stereotypes, and most of all they feel unwelcomed by the preponderant population. often some americans make unabashed remarks like: “get out of my country.” the electoral victory of trump with the macabre promises to build a wall on the mexican border, deport illegal aliens, “protect american jobs” (chavez, 2017), and “make america great again” has made a bad situation worse and threatens american pluralism more than ever before. iv. the trump phenomenon trump essentially launched his current political career by becoming one of the most prominent advocates for the “birther” racist conspiracy theory that former president obama was not born in the united states (lopez, 2017; haberman and martin, 2017). the unexpected outcome of the 2016 election further boosted trump’s political ascendancy. in a post-election essay, congressional scholar, thomas mann, asserted: “most people didn’t believe trump was the most qualified candidate, had the requisite experience and personality to be commanderin-chief, or made a practice of telling the truth. nonetheless, a small number of voters strategically located in a handful of swing states overcame those doubts and took a flyer on the promise of change, a whack at the establishment, and an opportunity to express their understandable frustration and resentment of economic and cultural changes” (mann, 2017). mann is not alone in his observation. the economist (april 19, 2018) posited, “mr. trump’s takeover has its roots in the take-no-prisoners tribalism that gripped american politics long before he became president.” continuing the newspaper faulted trump’s victory as “the people versus the people...setting americans against each other paved donald trump’s path to power” (the economist, november 12, 2016a), “his victory threatens old certainties about america and its role in the world” (the economist, november 12, 2016b). george will, journalist, called trump “this sad, embarrassing wreck of a man” (the washington post, july 17, 2018). political scientists, michael tesler and john sides described trump as “a heterodox candidate whose success in the republican presidential primaries flummoxed many political observers including many political scientists” (the washington post, march 2, 2016). so what is behind trump’s appeal and electoral success? in other words, how was trump, a political greenhorn with no washington experience and establishment backing able to steamroll over his seasoned opponents to win the republican presidential primaries and nomination, and ultimately the presidency of the united states? for a better understanding of trumpism, tesler and sides offered three explanations. first, “most voters aren’t ideologues,” meaning, broockman (2014) “most americans are simply not ideologically consistent  53  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  enough that ideological labels such as “conservative,” “liberal” or moderate accurately describe them.” also, (shaw, 1999, p. 388) “people are generally uninvolved in politics, making them very unlikely to seek out political information and somewhat unlikely to be moved by information to which they are exposed.” tyler cowen (2016) suggested that trump’s success should lead us to conclude that “republican voters are less conservative, less ‘tea party,’ and less libertarian than many people had thought,” and the “periphery republicans” (voters self-identified as republicans who are registered as democrats) (cohn, 2016) who voted for trump. this observation aligns with earlier work by converse (1964) on “belief systems” of “how most people do not interpret politics through an ideological lens.” this tendency is strongly associated with “low information voters” (voters with less education and interest in politics), the group most attracted to trump. second explanation, is “the grievances of some white americans and their hostility to minority groups” (tesler and sides, 2016). several studies, analyses, and reports back this up (shapiro, 2019; confessore, 2016; national academies of sciences, engineering, and medicine, 2004; kerner report, 1968). converse (1964) argued, “americans organize their opinions reflective of attitudes towards social groups.” ethnocentric suspicions of minority groups in general, and attitudes about blacks in particular, influence whites’ opinions about many issues (tesler and sides, 2016; kinder and kam, 2010). for example, attitudes about africanamericans are a major reason why the once solidly democratic south has become a republican stronghold (tesler and sides, 2016). “appeals to racial divisions and ethnic animosities have often succeeded in galvanizing support for racially conservative politicians and, trump not only took advantage of white’s negative attitudes about minorities, he garnered support from people like former ku klux klan leader david duke, who once told his followers that voting against trump “is really treason to your heritage” (tesler and sides, 2016). this “loyalty to one man – donald trump and to the prejudice and rage which consume the voter base is unprecedented in america and dangerous,” argued the economist (april 19, 2018). political scientist, larry sabato (2014), offered more explanation: “the best political advertisements, positive and negative, follow the principle of not attempting to create, but instead exploiting, moods, beliefs, and prejudices already present in the electorate.” connor (2018) added, “citizen’s disillusionment with politics may mean they do not care very much about policies, legislative successes, or the like. the moral vacuum of the demagogue matches, in other words, the absence of hope in the electorate.” also, drutman (2017) observed, “by making questions of national identity more salient, donald trump succeeded in winning over “populists” (socially conservative, economically liberal voters) who had previously voted for democrats.” third explanation is the economic factor. simply put, the economic struggles and anxieties of americans, especially whites. shapiro (2019, p. 1) observed, “no wonder white workers are so mad. they really are falling behind.” consider this: the number of employed white high school graduates fell by 4,854,694 between january 2008 and august 2018, nearly 17 percent decline, despite nine years of economic expansion, the number of employed non-white high school graduates rose 3,343,341, or 27.2 percent during the same time period (shapiro, 2019, p. 2). in addition, “although the u.s. economy recovered from the 2008 financial crisis,”...the recovery was highly unequal, with certain sectors, demographics, and regions doing extremely well and others still struggling” (rohac, kennedy, and singh, 2018, p. 2). for many voters, “the nature of the times” is measured by the state of the economy. if the economy is doing well voters are happy with incumbents regardless of ideology. when the reverse is the case, the mantra is “vote the bums out,” and the refrains “our country doesn’t win anymore,” and “make america great again” become loud and vociferous. throwback to the slow economic recovery on the heels of the great recession, and tapping into citizens’ economic worries and financial difficulties, trump inordinately boasted at the launch of his campaign in june 2015, “i will be the greatest jobs president god has ever created.” as if all of the foregoing were not enough, the political reluctance on the part of the obama administration to use america’s preponderant military power to end protracted and nagging military conflicts around the globe, coupled with a stalled and insipid world economy combined to create the perception of a world in turmoil and a state of disorder in the minds of citizens already filled with anxieties and anger (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). increasingly, there was loud talk of america’s decline. predictably, this created a sharp and negative reaction on the part of crusading politicians, citizens and community leaders alike who called for revanchist policies to turn the tide before the situation spirals completely out of control (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). a focal point of anger is the seemingly endless syrian civil war, the attendant refugee crisis and the increased terrorist problems across the globe (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). hence, the appearance of an emboldened and rejuvenated right-wing in the major rich countries of the world including the united states called for the scrapping of trade deals and shutting of borders to immigrants (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). perceptions of u.s. power in decline deepened as president obama assumed office and began to scale back (viewed as leading from behind accelerating u.s. slippage or perceptions thereof) some of the more pugnacious (big stick, cowboy approach) foreign policy measures of the george w. bush administration (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). if it is true that observations of america in retreat predate the obama presidency, however, the arrival of obama at the white house and the re-introduction of a u.s. foreign policy with concentration on multilateralism at its core and a reduction in america’s role as the global policeman provoked a sharp backlash  54  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  amongst those who see slippage and wonder if america’s retreats are not an open invitation to more ambitious adversaries (e.g. russia incursions in crimea, eastern ukraine, syria; china’s provocative activities in the south china sea and disputed island of taiwan, to name a few) (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). critics seized on obama’s inexperience and contended that his actions were designed to bring the united states to ruin. end of the cold war created a vacuum that was quickly filled by the resurgence of old animosities (e.g. 1994 rwanda massacre), peripheral wars (e.g. bosnian war between 1992 and 1995), and the return of terrorist activities (e.g. terrorist attack on the world trade center, new york). by the time of clinton administration’s unipolarity, however, there was equivocation on how to handle the balkan wars and kosovo until clinton took the bull by the horn. political power tussle and military conflict dovetailed into cultural and ethnic chauvinism. for a long time, writers and observers in political science and international relations have relegated cultural and ethnic variables to the background – all these people felt that cultural variables were messy, too backwardlooking and has no place in achievement oriented societies (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). but this feeling is rather flawed, because as jervis (1976, p.151) suggested, “a person’s background and culture can serve the same function as instructions in creating perceptual predispositions.” available evidence indicate that cultural roots not only run deep in the fabric of a society, it can also unite people for a common purpose, and above all it can influence who gets “what, when, and how” (laswell, 1936). kuzio (2002, p. 20) argued, “all civic states...are based on ethno-cultural cores.” martigny (2008, p. 544) postulated, “civic nations...need cultural elements to reinforce their legitimacy.” organski and kugler (1989) noted, “nations, like political groups in the domestic system are in constant competition over scarce resources...the objective of nations is not to maximize power, rather, the objective is to maximize gains.” cultural nationalists are not any different, and they can go to any lengths to protect their economic interests and privileges when they are threatened or the perception thereof. cultural nationalists like ethnic chauvinists strive to “maximize gains” for their own ilk. gans (2000, p. 441) explained: “according to cultural nationalism, members of groups sharing a common history and societal culture have a fundamental, morally significant interest in adhering to their culture and in sustaining it for generations. moreover, this interest should be protected by the states.” kuzio (2002, p. 134) also inferred “nationalism can exist in the form of ‘national interest’, defense of ‘sovereignty’, territorial integrity, and factors unique to the population that make them different to outsiders.” hutchinson (2018, p. 6) is also of the view “...nationalism is vital for understanding the rise of nation-states, the formation of nations and the nature of the international system.” geertz (1973, p. 237) articulated, “nationalism is a major collective passion...” kazin (2017) argued, “the power of populism [nationalism] lies in its adaptable nature.” the foci is the question of motive behind the escalating animus against ethnic minorities and the vociferous opposition to immigration by cultural nationalists. the undergird motive is the populist march to regain economic foothold and to push back on the gains of globalization which they feel have slipped away from them while benefiting immigrants and refugees or those “who look different.” president trump championed and canvassed this feeling throughout his campaign and into his presidency. in an irredentist bluster based on “his belief that foreigners are stealing jobs from american workers” (hoban, 2017), trump has repeatedly lambasted and demeaned immigrants, alluding “they’re taking our jobs. they’re taking our manufacturing jobs. they’re taking our money. they’re killing us” (kohn, 2016). it was patrick buchanan, author and syndicated columnist, who said it best when he lashed out that arabs and other colored people cannot integrate into a predominant anglo-saxon culture because they are from inferior cultures and therefore cannot assimilate (nwagbara and esedo, 2017). hear buchanan: “but when it comes to the ability to assimilate into a nation like the united states, all nationalities, creeds, and cultures are not equal. to say that they are is ideology speaking, not judgment born of experience...it is not true that all creeds and cultures are equally assimilable in a first world nation born of england, christianity, and western civilization. race, faith, ethnicity and history leave genetic fingerprints no ‘proposition nation’ can erase...race matters. ethnicity matters. history matters” (anti-defamation league, n.d.). even “one of the most articulate exponents of liberal american political thought, arthur schlesinger jr” (rex, 1996, p. 2) asserted rather innocuously but no less disconcerting that multiculturalism could be “disuniting america” (schlesinger, 1992). the “clash of civilizations” (huntington, 1996) echoed buchanan and schlesinger’s words, maybe in not similar terms. v. immigration and the american dream the most divisive wedge issue in international politics today is immigration and some countries tend to see closed borders as the answer, by implication wishing away the fact that walled borders will drive away investors and scare visitors, and countries will suffer economic declines and social upheavals. the united states is no exception. in spite of her celebrated welcoming culture and “melting pot” credential, report after report show that america has deep rooted immigration challenges. according to a recent report by the u.s. congressional research service: “long-standing immigration-related challenges include an estimated population of over 10 million unauthorized individuals, a large portion of whom have lived in the country for over a decade and have u.s. citizen and lawful permanent resident (lpr) children; increasing competition among more advanced  55  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  nations for the “best and brightest” workers, including u.s. educated science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (stem) graduates; a queue of 4.4 million individuals whose petitions for lawful permanent resident (lpr) status have been approved and who must wait, in some cases decades, for a numerically limited visa to immigrate; and ongoing border security and interior enforcement challenges” (kandel, et al., 2015). (figures 1 and 2 show the number of undocumented immigrants living and working in the united states and undocumented population by state, respectively). to address the “long standing immigration challenges” and growing frustration with “american broken immigration system (the white house, 2013),” then president obama on november 20, 2014 announced his immigration accountability executive action. according to the white house: “the president’s immigration accountability executive actions will help secure the border, hold nearly 5 million undocumented immigrants accountable, and ensure that everyone plays by the same rules. acting within his legal authority, the president is taking an important step to fix our broken immigration system. these executive actions crack down on illegal immigration at the border, prioritize deporting felons not families, and require certain undocumented immigrants to pass a criminal background check and pay their fair share of taxes as they register to temporarily stay in the u.s. without fear of deportation” (the white house, 2014). president obama’s immigration initiatives cover the following policy areas (the white house, 2014): expanded deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca): increasing the population eligible for the daca program by expanding the eligibility criteria, and extending the duration of daca and its related work authorization from two to three years; deferred action for parents of americans and lawful permanent residents (dapa): allowing parents of u.s. citizens and lawful permanent residents (lprs) to request deferred action and employment authorization if they meet residency and other criteria and pass required background checks; parole rules: revising conditions under which eligible family members of military personnel, persons traveling abroad, and certain entrepreneurs may receive parole; provisional unlawful presence waivers: expanding the use of provisional unlawful presence waivers beyond spouses and minor children of u.s. citizens to also include the spouses and minor children of lprs as well as the adult children of u.s. citizens, and clarifying the “extreme hardship” standard that must be met to obtain this waiver; figure 1: undocumented immigrants living in the u.s.  source: adapted from jeffrey s. passel and d’vera cohn, “u.s. unauthorized immigrant total dips to lowest level in a decade,” pew research center, november 27, 2018. https://www.pewhispanic.org/2018/11/27/u-s-unauthorized-immigrant-total-dips-to-lowest-level-in-adecade/. high skilled workers: ensuring that all statutorily available lpr visas are fully utilized, reviewing the labor certification program and its regulations to strengthen its integrity and responsiveness to workforce changes, providing foreign workers with greater flexibility to change jobs, expanding the use of national interest waivers to retain selected highly qualified workers, expanding opportunities for students to gain on-the-job training through administrative rule changes, and clarifying the meaning of “specialized knowledge” to ensure u.s. workers are not being unfairly displaced; immigrant integration and naturalization: initiating an inter-agency task force to identify and promote both  56  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  immigrant integration “best practices” within states and localities as well as facilitating steps that can be taken administratively within and among federal agencies, and encouraging eligible lprs to naturalize through additional payment options and possible partial fee waivers; immigrant visa system: providing recommendations to streamline, modernize, and improve immigrant and nonimmigrant visa processing; labor protection: creating an inter-agency working group to promote effective and consistent enforcement of federal labor, employment, and immigration laws to protect all workers regardless of legal status; and crime victims: expanding the department of labor (dol) wage and hour division’s role in supporting foreign national victims of human trafficking and other select crimes. of all the enunciated initiatives, none has generated more controversy and drawn the fury of conservatives, cultural nationalists, and ethnic chauvinists as daca. figure 2: undocumented immigrant population by state, 2016  source: adapted from jeffrey s. passel and d’vera cohn, “u.s. unauthorized immigrant total dips to lowest level in a decade,” pew research center, november 27, 2018. https://www.pewhispanic.org/2018/11/27/u-s-unauthorized-immigrant-total-dips-to-lowest-level-in-adecade/. vi. deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) in the main, the daca program was introduced by then president obama in 2012 as a stopgap measure that would protect from deportation people who were brought into the united states as children (dickerson, 2018). daca also gives those who are approved work authorization, the approvals can be renewed for two years at a time, and the program does not provide a pathway to citizenship (robertson, 2018; dickerson, 2018). other daca benefits include in-state tuition, higher education access, driving privileges, and depending on state of residence, recipients can also qualify for state-subsidized health care (robertson, 2018; dickerson, 2018). daca recipients are often referred to as dreamers, after congress failed to pass the “dream act” which was introduced in 2001 and would have given its beneficiaries a path to american citizenship (robertson, 2018; dickerson, 2018). to qualify for daca, per directives issued on june 15, 2012 by the u.s. department of homeland security, applicants must meet the following criteria:  came to the united states under the age of sixteen;  have continuously resided in the united states since june 15, 2007 and are present in the united states on june 12, 2012 and at the time of applying;  are currently in school, have graduated from high school, have obtained a general education development certificate, or are honorably discharged veterans of the coast guard or armed forces of the united states;  have not been convicted of a felony offense, a significant misdemeanor offense, multiple misdemeanor offenses, or otherwise pose a threat to national security or public safety;  are not above the age of thirty.  57  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  a typical ‘dreamer’ a typical ‘dreamer’ lives in california, is from mexico, and came to the u.s. at 6 years old (figures 3 and 4) (parlapiano and yourish, 2018). as of september 4, 2017 there were 689,800 daca recipients, according to u.s. citizenship and immigration services (uscis, 2017). the highest numbers of daca recipients are from mexico at more than 618,000 while the least number of recipients are from namibia at 10 (not shown on figure 4). (uscis, 2017). figure 3: more than 25% of daca beneficiaries live in california ca lifornia texa s illinois new york florida arizona north ca rolina georgia new jersey wa shington colorado neva da virginia oregon  222,795 124,300 42,376 41,970 32,795 27,865 27,385 24,135 22,024 17,843 17,258 13,070 12,134 11,281 0  50,000  100,000  150,000  200,000  250,000  source: u.s. citizenship and immigration services, u.s. department of homeland security adapted from the new york times of january 23, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/09/05/us/politics/who-are-the-dreamers.html figure 4: most daca beneficiaries come from mexico mexico el salva dor gua tema la hondura s peru bra zil south korea ecua dor colombia argentina philippines ja maica india dominica n rep. venezuela  618,342 28,371 19,792 18,262 9,066 7,361 7,250 6,696 6,591 4,774 4,655 3,435 3,182 3,115 3,099 0  100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000  source: u.s. citizenship and immigration services, u.s. department of homeland security adapted from the new york times of january 23, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/09/05/us/politics/who-are-the-dreamers.html vii. president trump rescind daca to further demonstrate his tough immigration policies, “double down on gestures to his angry base” (the economist, october 21st-27th, 2017), and crackdown on undocumented immigrants, on september 5, 2017 president trump ordered an end to the daca program calling it an “amnesty-first approach” and urged congress to pass a replacement legislation to end daca protections within six months (shear and davis, 2017). also, trump’s action may not be unconnected with the ultimatum issued in june 2017 by republican party attorneys general and governors from 10 states led by texas attorney general ken paxton to the trump  58  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  administration and then u.s. attorney general, jeff sessions, to end the daca program by september 5 or face a lawsuit (svajlenka, jawetz, and bautista-chavez, 2017). with the stroke of his pen and power of his office, trump effectively made nearly 800,000 young adults brought to the united states illegally as children who qualify for daca eligible for deportation (shear and davis, 2017). then u. s. attorney general, jeff sessions, who announced the change declared daca “denied jobs to hundreds of thousands of americans by allowing those same illegal aliens to take those jobs.” reactions and protests to session’s announcement were both swift and widespread across the united states. several individuals and groups of different political stripes and persuasions “condemned the move as a coldhearted and shortsighted effort that was unfair to the young immigrants and could harm the economy” (shear and davis, 2017). republican strategist, alex castellanos (2018), could not be more critical of trump’s tactics: “trump champions a strong national identity by inciting conflict and segregation. his divisive view of america is rooted in resentment and anger.” former president obama, who had warned that any threat to daca would prompt him to speak out, called trump’s decision “wrong,” “self-defeating” and “cruel.” mr. obama wrote on facebook (september 5, 2017): “whatever concerns or complaints americans may have about immigration in general, we shouldn’t threaten the future of this group of young people who are here through no fault of their own, who pose no threat, who are not taking away anything from the rest of us.” business and industry leaders could not be more alarmed (wichter, 2017). facebook founder, mark zuckerberg, wrote on his personal page (september 5, 2017): “this is a sad day for our country. the decision to end daca is not just wrong. it is particularly cruel to offer young people the american dream, encourage them to come out of the shadows and trust our government, and then punish them for it.” bill gates, the co-founder of microsoft, wrote on facebook (september 5, 2017) that he was “very disappointed” by the president’s decision: “dreamers represent the best instincts of this country and the tradition that the great experiment of the united states is made better by people from other places coming here to dedicate their talents and commitment to continuing to move our country forward.” sundar pichai, google chief executive, wrote on twitter: “dreamers are our neighbors, our friends and our co-workers. this is their home. congress needs to act now to #defenddaca. #withdreamers (10:28 am - sep 5, 2017).” randy falco, president and chief executive of the spanish-language broadcaster, univision, released a statement that read in part: “i am disappointed, to say the least, in today’s announcement by the administration to end the deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) program in six months. the u.s. government is revoking the ability of roughly 800,000 dreamers to continue to work and contribute in countless ways to the united states — the only home they have ever known. this is a failure to live up to a commitment already made to dreamers and is contrary to america’s values and traditions” (univision communications inc. 2017). lloyd blankfein, goldman sachs chief executive, tweeted and urged congress to restore daca’s protections: “immigration is a complex issue but i wouldn't deport a kid who was brought here and only knows america. congress must address. #daca” 3:47 pm - sep 5, 2017.” walmart corporation proclaimed, “we encourage congress to work on a bipartisan solution that provides clarity to those involved and recognizes those who have strong ties to their communities and came to the u.s. in a way that was outside their control. as a company we have come to highly value many of these individuals as our customers and fellow associates. any legislative solution needs to avoid disrupting families, our communities and the economy.” brian moynihan, bank of america’s ceo tweeted: “individuals covered by #daca live in and contribute to communities bofa serves. we encourage congress to resolve. 4:47 pm - sep 5, 2017.” not done, on april 2, 2018 president trump announced in a flurry of tweet messages “no more daca deal,” threatened to exit the north american free trade agreement (nafta), and directed congressional republicans to pass tough anti-immigration legislation (rucker and weigel, 2018). however, trump’s daca proposals are not done deals yet. in fact, they face uphill battles including court challenges. on january 9, 2018 a federal judge in san francisco, justice william alsup, temporarily and partially blocked the trump administration action to end daca, ruling that it had to continue processing daca renewals while a legal challenge proceeds (robertson, 2018). judge alsup called trump’s administration decision to rescind daca “arbitrary and capricious" and a nationwide injunction was "appropriate" because "our country has a strong interest in the uniform application of immigration law and policy" (de vogue, berman and park, 2018 ). in february 2018, the u.s. supreme court turned down to hear the appeal brought by the trump administration for expedited ruling as to whether the administration can end daca (liptak and shear, 2018). the supreme court’s decision as a practical matter temporarily shields dreamers who have already signed up for the daca program from immediate deportation and loss of their work permits that came with daca (de vogue, berman and park, 2018; gomez, 2018). on april 19, 2018 a federal appeals court in chicago ruled against the trump administration’s effort to withhold federal funds for law enforcement from “sanctuary cities,” writing “the power of the purse rests with congress, which authorized the federal funds at issue and did not impose any immigration enforcement conditions on the receipt of such funds” (barrett, 2018). [sanctuary city is a term used by trump and other conservatives who have pushed for a crackdown on undocumented immigrants to describe jurisdictions that do not notify federal immigration agents when they have taken into  59  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  custody possible undocumented aliens unless they have some reason to think the person poses a threat to public safety, such as an outstanding felony warrant]. (barrett, 2018). on april 24, 2018 u.s. district judge john d. bates in washington ruled against trump’s decision to end the daca program, calling it “arbitrary and capricious...unlawful and must be set aside” (associated press, 2018). on june 18, 2020 the u.s. supreme court ultimately ruled against trump administration attempt to end daca (barnes, 2020). former president obama reacted to the ruling on twitter, “eight years ago this week, we protected young people who were raised as part of our american family from deportation. today, i’m happy for them, their families, and all of us. we may look different and come from everywhere, but what makes us american are our shared ideals” (barack obama @barackobmama. june 18. https://twitter.com/barackobama/status/1273637590013480961). apart from legal hurdles, economic benefits of keeping the dream act alive also work against trump’s daca rescission order because providing pathway to legal status for undocumented immigrants would significantly improve the u.s. economy as opposed to the deportation of dreamers. viii. daca and the u.s. economy a recent study by the center for american progress (cap), a think tank, found that passing the dream act, and placing all of the potentially immediately eligible workers on a path to legal status, would add a total of 22.7 billion annually to the u.s. gross domestic product (ortega, edwards, and wolgin, 2017). and because the gains from legalization grow each year, the cumulative increase in gdp over 10 years would be 281 billion (ortega, edwards, and wolgin, 2017). according to another study, providing earned citizenship for undocumented workers would increase their wages and, over 10 years, boost u.s. gdp by 1.4 trillion, increase total income for all americans by 791 billion, generate 184 billion in additional state and federal tax revenue from currently undocumented immigrants, and add about 2 million jobs to the u.s. economy (the executive office of the president of the united states, 2013). in the opposite, removing unauthorized workers will harm the u.s. economy among other blowbacks. a recent analysis by cap found that mass deportation of unauthorized workers would instantly reduce u.s. gdp by 4.1%, and ultimately 2.6%, and contract cumulative gdp over 10 years by 4.7 trillion; cost nearly 900 billion in lost federal revenues over 10 years; undercut economic activities in states, especially states with large presence of unauthorized workers, for example california, by estimated 103 billion annually (edwards and ortega, 2016), and eliminate estimated 685,000 workers from the u.s. economy (svajlenka, jawetz, and bautista-chavez, 2017). furthermore, historically immigrants have made enormous contributions to american science and technology, with albert einstein perhaps the leading example (west, 2011). far from “crowding out” nativeborn workers and depressing their wages, well-educated immigrants create “brain gain” for u.s. employers especially in the high technology and biotechnology industries. recent studies by the brookings institution, a think tank, for example, indicated that in silicon valley, more than half of new tech start-up companies were founded by foreign-born owners, more than a quarter of u.s. technology and engineering businesses launched between 1995 and 2005 had a foreign-born founder, nearly a quarter of the international patents filed from the united states in 2006 were based on the work of foreign-born individuals, immigrants are three more likely to file patents that u.s. born citizens, one-third of all u.s. winners of nobel prizes in medicine and physiology were born in other countries (west, 2011; greenstone and looney, 2010). also, contrary to assertions by president trump that “undocumented immigrants are a drain to taxpayers,” the tax contributions of undocumented immigrants to state and local economies are enormous. according to the institute on taxation and economic policy (itep), undocumented workers collectively pay estimated 11.74 billion in local and state taxes per year in the united states, contributions range from a little over 550,000 in montana (undocumented population 1,000) to more than 3.2 billion in california (undocumented population 3.1 million) (gee et. al, 2017). granting legal status to all undocumented immigrants as part of a comprehensive immigration reform and allowing them to work legally would increase their state and local tax contributions by an estimated 2.18 billion a year (gee et. al, 2017). meanwhile, as to trump’s obdurate assertions that “illegal immigrant households receive far more in welfare benefits than native citizens” (kohn, 2016), the fact is that undocumented immigrants do not qualify for welfare, food stamps, medicaid, and most other public benefits (santana, 2014). (citizen children of illegal immigrants, often derogatorily referred to as "anchor babies" do qualify for social benefits). (santana, 2014). also, instead of mooching off the public benefits system, undocumented immigrants pay an estimated 15 billion a year into social security they will not be able to collect (santana, 2014). in addition, trump’s assertion has been disputed by the conservative cato institute. a 2013 cato institute study found that non-citizen immigrant adults and children are about 25% less likely to receive medicaid than their poor native-born counterparts and are also 37% less likely to receive food stamps (ku and bruen, 2013). ix. conclusion walter mead, a scholar at the hudson institute, a think tank, wrote in foreign affairs of march/april 2017: “for  60  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  the first time in 70 years, the american people have elected a president who disparages the policies, ideas, and institutions at the heart of postwar u.s. foreign policy. no one knows how the foreign policy of the trump administration will take shape, or how the new president’s priorities and preferences will shift as he encounters the torrent of events and crisis ahead. but not since franklin roosevelt’s administration has u.s. foreign policy witnessed debates this fundamental.” while the full impact of these fundamental debates may never be known in their entirety, however, it is abundantly clear that to president trump, “the unquestioned surging force in american politics is populist nationalism...the nation-state of the american people, and its chief business lies at home” (mead, 2017). economic globalization has enhanced economic possibilities and eliminated barriers to free trade, but at the same time, it has left many individuals resentful and jobless and, the industries prostrate. the poignancy cannot be missed in rising inequality and the feeling of “been left-out,” the “game is rigged,” “scapegoating” of and “blame and keep foreigners out.” these feelings are especially strong in the industrialized nations, particularly, in the united states manifested by the mean-spirited brand populism of the trump administration, which stir up deep anti-immigrants sentiments, demonize immigrants, calling for their exclusion and ouster and blaming them for virtually everything that is wrong with america, especially the economic travails and security concerns of americans. while other factors are at work in the immigrant angst, there is a strong connection between the incidence of globalization and the upsurge in ethno-nationalism in the united states, vis-a-vis “economic nationalism that tend to create, bolster and protect national economies [united states] in the context of world markets” (pryke, 2012, p. 281), and by implication protectionism and escalation of trade barriers. nationalism will always be around, for as liebich (2006, p. 583) maintained “there is no escaping nationalism” but extreme nationalism and cultural parochialism are passing fads. overall pluralism and globalization are “force of good” not just with respect to the benefits of economic growth and multiculturalism, but also, free markets go together with shared prosperity and pluralism. dahl (1997, p. 121) reiterated, “pluralism is necessary, inevitable, and desirable,” because “diversity gives people more choice and leads to selfunderstanding” (bailey and braybrooke, 2003, p. 112). it may that to check virulent nationalism, nations must always strive to pursue policies to boost productivity, restore economic growth, maintain social progress, avoid wars, and hence reduce citizens anxieties. delanty (1996, p. 56) enjoined, “...the most important challenge facing the democratic multi-cultural state...is to find ways of preserving the link between social citizenship and multiculturalism. without a solid basis in social citizenship, multiculturalism will suffer continued attacks from nationalism, feeding off social insecurity.” we can take a cue from the wise words of french president, emmanuel macron. in a momentous speech to the american congress on april 25, 2018 that many commentators have alluded to as “a veiled rebuke” to trump’s “extreme nationalism,” macron said: “isolationism, withdrawal and nationalism can be tempting to us as a temporary remedy to our fears. but closing the door to the world will not stop the evolution of the world. it will not douse but inflame the fears of our citizens...we will not let the rampaging work of extreme nationalism shake a world full of hopes for greater prosperity" (lederman and mascara, 2018). references agbiboa, d. e. (2013). ethno-religious conflicts and the elusive quest for national identity in nigeria. journal of black studies, 44(1), 3-30. alter, p. (1994). nationalism. trans. stuart mckinnon-evans, (london), p. 4. quoted in lloyd kramer’s article, “historical narratives and the meaning of nationalism.” anti-defamation league. (n.d.). pat buchanan in his own words. http://archive.adl.org/special_reports/buchanan_own_words/on_immigration.html. arat, z. f. (1988). democracy and economic development: modernization theory revisited. comparative politics, 21(1), 21-36. asari, e. m., halikiopoulou, d., and mock, s. (2008). british national identity and the dilemmas of multiculturalism. nationalism and ethnic politics, 14, 1-28. associated press. (2018, april 25). a federal judge has ruled against president trump's 'unlawful' move to end daca. http://time.com/5253724/donald-trump-daca-judge-unlawful/. badkhen, a. (2016). the new reorder. foreign policy, january/february. bahar, d. (2020, april 1). don’t forget to thank immigrants, too. brookings institution. washington, dc. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/01/dont-forget-to-thank-immigrants-too/. bailey, m., and braybrooke, d. (2003). robert a. dahl’s philosophy of democracy, exhibited in his essays. annual review of political science, 6 (1), 99-118. barnes, r. (2020, june 18). supreme court blocks trump’s bid to end daca, a win for undocumented ‘dreamers.’ the washington post.https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/courts_law/supreme-courtrules-against-trump-administration-attempt-to-end-daca-a-win-for-undocumented-immigrants-brought-tous-as-children/2020/06/18/4f0b6c74-b163-11ea-8758-bfd1d045525a_story.html.  61  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  barrett, d. (2018, april 19). appeals court rules against trump administration over ‘sanctuary cities. the washington post.https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/appeals-court-rules-againsttrump-administration-over-sanctuary-cities/2018/04/19/0b9760ec-440f-11e8-856926fda6b404c7_story.html?utm_term .b89f310f1b60. breuilly, j. (1999). nationalism and the history of ideas. elie kedourie memorial lecture. proceedings of the british academy, 105, 187- 222. https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/105p187.pdf. broockman, d. (2014, january 22). the real extremists are american voters, not politicians. the washington post.https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/01/22/the-real-extremists-areamerican-voters-not-politicians/?utm_term .8e2a41c37795. brookings institution. (2017, september 22). immigration policy in trump’s america. washington, dc. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/gs_20170922_immigration_transcript.pdf. castellanos, a. (2018, april 19). trumpism without trump. politico magazine. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/04/19/trumpism-without-trump-218013. caygle, h. (2016, june 7). ryan: trump’s comments ‘textbook definition’ of racism. politico. https://www.politico.com/story/2016/06/paul-ryan-trump-judge-223991. chavez, l. (2017). trump’s massive miscalculation – how the current administration totally misunderstands the economics of immigration. foreign policy, september/october. https://www.questia.com/magazine/1g1-506318467/trump-s-massive-miscalculation-how-the-currentadministration. coakley, j. (2009). comparing ethnic conflicts: common patterns, shared challenges. nationalism and ethnic politics, 15(3-4), 261-279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13537110903389320. cohan, w. d. (2017, may 30). how stephen miller rode white rage from duke’s campus to trump’s west wing. vanity fair, https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/05/stephen-miller-duke-donald-trump. cohen, r. (2017, january 20). theresa may’s ‘global britain’ is baloney. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/20/opinion/theresa-mays-global-britain-is-baloney.html. cohn, n. (2015, december 31). donald trump’s strongest supporters: a certain kind of democrat. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/31/upshot/donald-trumps-strongest-supporters-a-certainkind-of-democrat.html. confessore, n. (2016, july 13). for whites sensing decline, donald trump unleashes words of resistance. the new york times.https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/us/politics/donald-trump-white-identity.html. connor, w. c. (2018). populist or demagogue? – is trumpism an anomaly or a real threat to the future?” the american scholar. https://theamericanscholar.org/a-vacuum-at-the-center/. converse, p. (1964). the nature of belief systems in mass publics. in ideology and discontent. david apter (ed).http://wikisum.com/w/converse:_the_nature_of_belief_systems_in_mass_publics. cowen, t. (2016, february 21). given that trump is winning, which other views should we update? marginal revolution blog. https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2016/02/given-that-trump-iswinning-which-views-should-we-update.html?trashed 1andids 158960204#sthash.ndxobfr1.dpuf. dahl, r. a. (1978). pluralism revisited. comparative politics, 10(2), 191-203. ______. (1997). toward democracy – a journey, reflections: 1940-1997. berkeley: university of california, institute of governmental studies press. dawsey, j. (2018, january 12). trump derides protections for immigrants from ‘shithole’ countries. the washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-attacks-protections-for-immigrantsfrom-shithole-countries-in-oval-office-meeting/2018/01/11/bfc0725c-f711-11e7-91af31ac729add94_story.html?utm_term .282ebe3f7772. delanty, g. (1996). beyond the nation-state: national identity and citizenship in a multicultural society - a response to rex. sociological research online, 1(3), 56-63. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.5153/sro.23. dickerson, c. (2018, january 23). “what is daca? who are the dreamers? here are some answers. the new york times. (updated jan 25, 2018). https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/23/us/daca-dreamersshutdown.html. drutman, l. (2017, june). political divisions in 2016 and beyond - tensions between and within the two parties. democracy fund voter study group. https://www.voterstudygroup.org/publications/2016elections/political-divisions-in-2016-and-beyond. economy, e. (2019). trade: parade of broken promises. democracy journal. https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/52/trade-parade-of-broken-promises/. edwards, r., and ortega, f. (2016, september). the economic impacts of removing unauthorized immigrant workers. center for american progress (cap). https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/09/20120917/massdeport1.pdf. encyclopedia britannica. (n.d.). pluralism. https://www.britannica.com/topic/pluralism-politics.  62  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  federal bureau of investigation. (2017). 2017 hate crime statistics. https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2017 and https://www.fbi.gov/services/cjis/ucr. gans, c. (2000). the liberal foundations of cultural liberalism. canadian journal of philosophy, 30(3), 441466. gates, b. (2017, september 5). facebook. https://www.facebook.com/billgates/posts/10154869051701961?linkid 41857848. gates, b., and gates, m. (2018, february 13). the 10 toughest questions we get. bill and melinda gates foundation, 2018 annual letter. https://www.gatesnotes.com/2018-annualletter?wt.mc_id 02_13_2018_02_annualletter2018_do-com_andwt.tsrc docom. gee, l. c. et al. (2017, march). undocumented immigrants’ state and local tax contributions. institute on taxation and economic policy. https://itep.org/wp-content/uploads/immigration2017.pdf. geertz, c. (1973). the interpretation of cultures. new york: basic books inc. gomez, a. (2018, february 26). what the supreme court ruling means for daca and almost 700,000 undocumented immigrants. usa today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/02/26/whatsupreme-court-ruling-means-daca-and-almost-700-000-undocumented-immigrants/372704002/. gomez, v., and perez huber, l. (2019). examining racist nativist microagressions on dacamented college students in the trump era. california journal of politics and policy, 11(2), 1-16. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/09c4q90x. goodkind, n. (2019, april 9). white nationalism in america. newsweek. gray, r. (2017, august 15). trump defends white-nationalist protesters: 'some very fine people on both sides.’ the atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/08/trump-defends-white-nationalistprotesters-some-very-fine-people-on-both-sides/537012/. greenstone, m., and looney, a. (2010, september). ten economic facts about immigration. brookings institution. washington, dc. http://www.hamiltonproject.org/assets/legacy/files/downloads_and_links/09_immigration.pdf. haberman, m., and martin, j. (2017, november 28). trump once said the ‘access hollywood’ tape was real. now he’s not sure. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/28/us/politics/trump-accesshollywood-tape.html?_r 0. harris, a. (2018, november 7). america is divided by education. the atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2018/11/education-gap-explains-american-politics/575113/. hayden, m. e. (2019, november 12). stephen miller’s affinity for white nationalism revealed in leaked emails. hatewatch. southern poverty law center. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2019/11/12/stephen-millers-affinity-white-nationalism-revealedleaked-emails. hoban, b. (2017, august 24). do immigrants “steal” jobs from american workers? brookings institution, washington, dc. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brookings-now/2017/08/24/do-immigrants-steal-jobsfrom-american-workers/. horowitz, j. m., brown, a., and cox, k. (2019). race in america 2019. pew research center. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/. howe, a. (2018, june 26). opinion analysis: divided court upholds trump travel ban (updated). scotusblog. https://www.scotusblog.com/2018/06/opinion-analysis-divided-court-upholds-trump-travelban/. huerta, a. (2017). the ‘war on immigrants’: policies in the trump era. policy brief. migration and citizenship (newsletter of the american political science association’s organized section on migration and citizenship) 5(2), 57-61. https://perma.cc/upy3-3m9w. human rights watch. (2017). the dangerous rise of populism. https://www.hrw.org/worldreport/2017/country-chapters/dangerous-rise-of-populism. huntington, s. p. (1996). the clash of civilizations. new york: simon and schuster. hutchinson, j. (2018). bringing the study of warfare into theories of nationalism. nations and nationalism, 24(1), 6-21. jervis, r. (1976). perception and misperception in international relations. new jersey: princeton university press. kandel, w., bjelopera, j. p., bruno, a., and siskin, a. (2015, february 24). the president’s immigration accountability executive action of november 20, 2014: overview and issues. congressional research service. kazin, m, (2017). the populist persuasion: an american history. new york: cornell university press. kerner report. (1968). report of the national advisory commission on civil disorders. new york: bantam books. kinder, d., and kam, c. (2010). us against them: ethnocentric foundations of american opinion (chicago  63  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  studies in american politics), university of chicago press. kohn, h. (1939). the nature of nationalism. american political science review, 33(6), 1001-1021. kohn, h. (1945). the idea of nationalism. new york: macmillan. kohn, s. (2016, june 29). nothing donald trump says on immigration holds up. time. http://time.com/4386240/donald-trump-immigration-arguments/. kramer, l. s. (1997). historical narratives and the meaning of nationalism. journal of the history of ideas, 58 (3), 525-545. ku, l., and bruen, b. (2013, march 4). poor immigrants use public benefits at a lower rate than poor nativeborn citizens. cato institute. https://www.cato.org/publications/economic-development-bulletin/poorimmigrants-use-public-benefits-lower-rate-poor. kugler, j., and organski, a.f.k. (1989). the power transition: a retrospective and prospective evaluation. in handbook of war studies. boston: unwin hyman. kuzio, t. (2002). the myth of the civic state: a critical survey of hans kohn’s frameworkfor understanding nationalism. ethnic and racial studies, 25(1), 20-39. kuzio, t. (2002). nationalism in ukraine: towards a new theoretical and comparative framework. journal of political ideologies, 7(2), 133-161. laswell, h. (1936). politics: who gets what, when, and how. new york: mcgraw-hill company. lederman, j., and mascaro, l. (2018, april 25). macron resists trump’s ‘america first’ in speech to congress. the washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/congress/macron-resists-trumps-americafirst-in-speech-to-congress/2018/04/25/f49e027e-48eb-11e8-8082105a446d19b8_story.html?utm_term .77739b04da54. lenz, r., and gunter, b. (2017, april 27).100 days in trump’s america. southern poverty law center (splc). https://www.splcenter.org/20170427/100-days-trumps-america. liebich, a. (2006). searching for the perfect nation: the itinerary of hans kohn (1891–1971). nations and nationalism, 12(4), 579-596. lipta, a., and shear, m. d. (2018, february 26). supreme court turns down trump’s appeal in ‘dreamers’ case. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/26/us/politics/supreme-court-trump-dacadreamers.html. lopez, g. (2017, november 29). trump is still reportedly pushing his racist “birther” conspiracy theory about obama. vox. https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/11/29/16713664/trump-obama-birthcertificate. mann, t. (2017, april). did ‘elites’ get the 2016 u.s. election wrong? brookings institution. washington, dc. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2017/04/14/did-elites-get-the-2016-us-election-wrong/. martigny, v. (2008). the importance of culture in civic nations: culture and the republic in france. studies in ethnicity and nationalism, 8(3), 543-559. mead, w. r. (2017, march/april). the jacksonian revolt – american populism and the liberal order. foreign affairs. mudde, c. (2013). are populists friends or foes of constitutionalism? the foundation for law, justice and society. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:fc657de0-ab0c-4911-8d2b646101599b65/download_file?file_format pdfandsafe_filename mudde_0.pdfandtype_of_work general item. national academies of sciences, engineering, and medicine. (2015). the integration of immigrants into american society. panel on the integration of immigrants into american society. m.c. waters and m.g. pineau (eds). committee on population, division of behavioral and social sciences and education. washington, dc: the national academies press. doi: 10.17226/21746. ______. (2004). measuring racial discrimination. washington, dc: the national academies press. https://www.nap.edu/read/10887/chapter/7. nnoli, o. (1978). ethnic politics in nigeria. enugu, nigeria: fourth dimension publishers. nowak, m., and branford, b. (2017, february 10). france elections: what makes marine le pen far right? bbc news. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-38321401. nwagbara, u., and esedo, k. (2017). the return of ethno-nationalism in the globalist age. paper presented at the annual conference of national association of african american studies, dallas, texas, usa. march 13-18. obama, b. facebook. (2017, september 5). https://www.facebook.com/barackobama/posts/10155227588436749. obama, b. @barackobama. twitter. (2020, june 18). https://twitter.com/barackobama/status/1273637590013480961. okoronkwo, j. (2018). it is my country, too. paper presented at the alabama political science association conference, mobile, alabama, usa. march 16-17. ortega, f., edwards, r., and wolgin, p. e. (2017, september 18). the economic benefits of passing the dream  64  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  act. center for american progress (cap). https://cdn.americanprogress.org/content/uploads/2017/09/08121320/0091817_economicimpactsdreamact -brief.pdf. osaghae, e. (1995). structural adjustment and ethnicity in nigeria. uppsala, sweden: nordic africa institute. parlapiano, a., and yourish, k. (2018, january 23). a typical ‘dreamer’ lives in los angeles, is from mexico, and came to the u.s. at 6 years old. the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/09/05/us/politics/who-are-the-dreamers.html. passel, j. s., and cohn, d. (2018, november 27). u.s. unauthorized immigrant total dips to lowest level in a decade. pew research center. https://www.pewhispanic.org/2018/11/27/u-s-unauthorized-immigrant-totaldips-to-lowest-level-in-a-decade/ peters, j. w. (2016, november 14). trump’s choice of stephen bannon is nod to anti-washington base. the new york times. pryke, s. (2012). economic nationalism: theory, history and prospects. global policy, 3(3), 281-291. rex, j. (1996). national identity in the democratic multi-cultural state. sociological research online, 1(2), 1-9. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.5153/sro.18?icid int.sj-full-text.similar-articles.1. robertson, l. (2018, january 22). the facts on daca. factcheck.org. https://www.factcheck.org/2018/01/the-facts-on-daca/. rohac, d., kennedy, l., and singh, v. (2018). drivers of authoritarian populism in the united states. center for american progress, washington, dc. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2018/05/10/450552/drivers-authoritarianpopulism-united-states/. rucker, p., and weigel, d. (2018, april 2). ‘no more daca deal,’ trump says as he threatens to ‘stop’ nafta if mexico doesn’t better secure border. the washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2018/04/01/deal-on-daca-no-more-trumpsays/?noredirect onandutm_term .6c594837b8bb. russian times. (2012, january 23). https://www.rt.com/politics/official-word/migration-national-question-putin439/. sabato, l. (2014, october 27). how goldwater changed campaigns forever. politico magazine. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/10/barry-goldwater-lasting-legacy-112210?o 1. santana, m. (2014, november 20). 5 immigration myths debunked. cnn money. http://money.cnn.com/2014/11/20/news/economy/immigration-myths/. schlesinger, jr. a. (1992). the disuniting of america. norton: new york. schwartz, y. (2017, march 9). meet frauke petry, the donald trump of germany. newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2017/03/17/frauke-petry-germany-afd-party-nationalism-564872.html. shapiro, r. (2019). race, ethnicity, and the job market. democracy journal. https://democracyjournal.org/arguments/race-ethnicity-and-the-job-market/ shaw, d. r. (1999). a study of presidential campaign event effects from 1952 to 1992. the journal of politics, 61(2), 387-422. shear, m.d., and davis, j. h. (2017, september 5). trump moves to end daca and calls on congress to act. the new york times. sidiq, k., and filindra, a. (2017). citizenship and migration studies in an era of nationalist populism. policy brief. migration and citizenship (newsletter of the american political science association’s organized section on migration and citizenship) 5(2), 2-5. https://perma.cc/upy3-3m9w. southern poverty law center (2017). 100 days in trump’s america. https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/com_trump_100_days_report_final_web.pdf. sutherland, c. (2005). nation building through discourse theory. nations and nationalism, 11(2), 185-202. svajlenka, n. p., jawetz, t., and bautista-chavez, a. (2017, july 21). a new threat to daca could cost states billions of dollars. center for american progress (cap). https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/news/2017/07/21/436419/new-threat-daca-coststates-billions-dollars/. taub, a. (2016, november 21). ‘white nationalism,’ explained.” the new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html. the economist. (2016, november 19). league of nationalists.http://www.economist.com/news/international/21710276-all-around-world-nationalists-aregaining-ground-why-league-nationalists. ______. (2013, november 12). racists in skinny jeans – meet the ib, europe’s version of america’s alt-right. ______. (2018, april 19). the republican party is organized around one man. ______. (2016a, november 12). the people v the people. ______. (2016b, november 12). the trump era.  65  
  journal of law, policy and globalization issn 2224-3240 (paper) issn 2224-3259 (online) vol.99, 2020  www.iiste.org  ______. (2017, october 21st-27th). left behind – how to help places hurt by globalization. https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21730412-time-fresh-thinking-about-changing-economicsgeography-right-way-help-declining. ______. (2015, february 25). from cold war to hot war. http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21643220russias-aggression-ukraine-part-broader-and-more-dangerous-confrontation. the executive office of the president of the united states. (2013, august). fixing our broken immigration system: the economic benefits of providing a path to earned citizenship. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/our-broken-immigration-system-august-2013.pdf. the white house. (2014, november 20). fact sheet: immigration accountability executive action. office of the press secretary. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/11/20/fact-sheetimmigration-accountability-executive-action. tesler, m., and sides, j. (2016, march 2). how political science helps explain the rise of trump: most voters aren’t ideologues. the washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkeycage/wp/2016/03/02/how-political-science-helps-explain-the-rise-of-trump-most-voters-arentideologues/?utm_term .3cb0c306deb2. ting, h. (2008). social construct of a nation-a theoretical exploration. nationalism and ethnic politics, 14, 453-482. tocqueville, a. (1835). democracy in america. henry reeve (trans). pennsylvania state university, electronic classics series, jim manis, faculty editor, hazleton, pa, usa. univision communications inc. (2017, september 5). statement from randy falco, president and ceo of uci, responding to the plan to end daca program. https://corporate.univision.com/corporate/press/publicpolicy-press/2017/09/05/statement-randy-falco-president-ceo-uci-responding-plan-end-daca-program/. u.s. citizenship and immigration services. approximate active daca recipients: country of birth. as of september 4, 2017.https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/uscis/resources/reports%20and%20studies/immigration %20forms%20data/all%20form%20types/daca/daca_population_data.pdf. u.s. department of homeland security. secretary napolitano announces deferred action process for young people who are low enforcement priorities. press release, june 15, 2012. https://www.nilc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/11/pd-children-dhs-pr-2012-06-15.pdf vogue, a., berman, d., and park, m. (2018, january 10). judge blocks trump administration plan to roll back daca. cable news network (cnn). https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/09/politics/california-judge-dacaapplications/index.html. the washington post. (2015, june 16). full text: donald trump announces a presidential bid. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/06/16/full-text-donald-trump-announces-apresidential-bid/?utm_term .0658baef144e. west, d. (2011, january). creating a “brain gain” for u.s. employers: the role of immigration. brookings institution. washington, dc. http://www.insidepolitics.org/brookingsreports/immigration_policy_brief.pdf. wichter, z. (2017, september 5). c.e.o.s see a ‘sad day’ after trump’s daca decision. the new york times. will, g. (2018, july 17). this sad, embarrassing wreck of a man. the washington post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/this-sad-embarrassing-wreck-of-a-man/2018/07/17/d06de8ea89e8-11e8-a345-a1bf7847b375_story.html?utm_term .5484dbf36b10. zuckerberg, m. (2017, september 5). facebook. https://www.facebook.com/zuck/posts/10104016069261801.  66  
       


authors_index: mahdiani, hamideh ungar, michael
secondary_title_index: adversity and resilience science
title_index: the dark side of resilience
abstract_index:
       is resilience always adaptive and functional, or can resilience be maladaptive in contexts where it masks vulnerability or prevents effective action to address risk? in this paper, we propose a new reading of resilience research which challenges the prevailing positive perspective and instead proposes that negative aspects of resilience are common. we focus on studying resilience on a spectrum, distinguishing between degrees of functionality by asking three questions: (1) is there a wrong degree of resilience? (2) is there a wrong context for resilience? and (3) is there a wrong type of resilience? we conclude with reflections on the dark side of resilience by differentiating between functional and less functional adaptation in relation to contexts, degrees of risk, and types of resilience shown.     

full_text_index:
       adversity and resilience science (2021) 2:147–155 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-021-00031-z  original article  the dark side of resilience hamideh mahdiani 1  & michael ungar  2  accepted: 20 january 2021 / published online: 3 february 2021 # the author(s) 2021  abstract is resilience always adaptive and functional, or can resilience be maladaptive in contexts where it masks vulnerability or prevents effective action to address risk? in this paper, we propose a new reading of resilience research which challenges the prevailing positive perspective and instead proposes that negative aspects of resilience are common. we focus on studying resilience on a spectrum, distinguishing between degrees of functionality by asking three questions: (1) is there a wrong degree of resilience? (2) is there a wrong context for resilience? and (3) is there a wrong type of resilience? we conclude with reflections on the dark side of resilience by differentiating between functional and less functional adaptation in relation to contexts, degrees of risk, and types of resilience shown. keywords human resilience . context . resilience paradox . maladaptive coping . dysfunctional systems  as darwin’s theory of survival of the fittest so eloquently (and wrongly) explained, the weak and vulnerable are undesirable because they are not expected to achieve optimal outcomes. we now understand that diversity is key to population success and that characteristics that appear to be signs of weakness can benefit a species when social and ecological conditions change. attention to positive adaptation within a limited scope of performance metrics, however, continues to characterize human resilience research, tracing its history back to studies by garmezy (1974), rutter (1990), werner (werner & smith, 1982), and others who identified the significant role of positive (socially desirable) adaptation in at-risk children who despite the odds showed high levels of achievement. this has not been without benefit as resilience research has contributed to policy changes, prevention strategies, and interventions that have helped foster positive adaptation in flawed contexts (ungar, 2020; luthar, 2006; masten, cutuli, herbers, & reed, 2009; torres, southwick, & mayes, 2011).  * hamideh mahdiani h.mahdiani@uni-mainz.de 1  institute for history, philosophy and ethics of medicine, university of mainz, am pulverturm 13, 55131 mainz, germany  2  resilience research centre, dalhousie university, halifax, nova scotia, canada  for the last several decades, however, there has also been ongoing debate about the definition, conceptualization, and measurement of resilience, with many models of resilience encouraging what howell and voronka (2012) refer to as “a technology of looking inward” (p. 4–5), with populations like soldiers and their families (howell, 2015), university students (aubrecht, 2012), and youth in foster care (drapeau, saintjacques, lepine, begin, & bernard, 2007) dissuaded from questioning context-related adversities like racism and other forms of social injustice. they are, instead, directed towards positive thinking and self-actualization. aside from making individuals the locus of change, much of this individualized discourse on resilience suggests that there is a right way to adapt to risk. though we are not arguing for the superiority of vulnerability, we are suggesting a more contextualized appreciation for what resilience should look like in different contexts of risk and greater focus to which regimes of cognition and behavior have the most value for different populations. when precisely is resilience functional and when is it less functional? we are not the first to pose this question, though we are the first to explore the concept of the dark side of resilience with the psychological state and social and physical ecologies of individuals in mind. previous resilience scholars have pondered the dubiousness of resilience with what has been referred to as a ‘paradox.’ for example, atkinson, martin, and rankin (2009) discussed the possibility of looking at resilience in a way which may not always be positive, whereby  
  148  they revisited the concept of resilience in their attempt to warn against “dangers of popular movements based on uncertain evidence” (2008, p.144). elsewhere, kuhlicke (2013) explored the dark side of resilience in relation to abuses of power, enabling those with privilege to “define what is right and what is wrong” (p. 61). together, these references hint at something amiss with resilience research and caution us to consider what should not be read as resilience, or in other words, when the concept of resilience stops being positive. we begin our argument with a brief review of the concept of resilience itself, highlighting the benefits and trade-offs which underscore the degrees of functionality in relation to adaptation.  resilience as a changing concept the concept of resilience is becoming increasingly multisystemic as studies of positive human adaptation under stress are inspiring research into fields as diverse as resilient communication systems (anderson et al., 2020), economics (perrings, 2006), political science (olsson et al., 2006), sociology (adger, 2000), and urban planning (pickett, mcgrath, cadenasso, & felson, 2014). moreover, resilience has been related to other scientific concepts such as natural capital (deutsch, folke, & skanberg, 2003), sustainability (elmqvist et al., 2019), globalization (armitage & johnson, 2006), and ecological justice (brown, 2016). while diversity of fields implies diversity of definitions, psychological resilience remains relatively homogeneous in its understanding of positive development as a “dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant adversity” (luthar, cicchetti, & becker, 2000, p.543). importantly, exposure to significant threat or severe adversity and the achievement of positive adaptation are consistent attributes of resilience though who defines a state of adversity and which outcomes are thought to be positive remain discursively challenging. adaptation typically refers to the developmental process (adjustment) by which individuals deal with difficult situations. though other disciplines emphasize the need for environments to accommodate or facilitate a population’s survival under stress, psychological resilience has tended to refer to how an individual’s positive adaptation potentiates success rather than how a change in the environment surrounding the individual could contribute to personal transformation (ungar, 2019). positive adaptation refers to “adjustment that is much better than what would be expected” (luthar, crossman, & small, 2015, p. 248) such as academic achievement or restraint from substance abuse. for this reason, resilience research explores the processes, moderators, and mechanisms that facilitate positive adaptation in the hope of providing a guide for the development of targeted interventions  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155  aimed at attenuating the deleterious effects of maltreatment or social vulnerabilities (houshyar, gold, & devries, 2013). some researchers, however, have argued that resilience is of tenuous scientific utility because it reflects ontogenetic instability (kaplan, 1999, 2013). for example, although a proportion of at-risk children excel at a particular point in time, many falter subsequently and manifest substantial deterioration in their levels of adaptation (tarter et al., 1999). positive adaptation can also overlook the potential for personal enhancement because of risk exposure. in studies of adaptation to life crisis, investigators have often failed to consider the possibility of a new and better level of adaptation that reflects personal growth (posttraumatic growth) rather than a return to the status quo (kaplan, 2005; schaefer & moos, 1992). thus, personal growth requires a period of decline in functioning if new capacities are to be realized. with few exceptions, patterns of coping like social withdrawal and maladaptive coping may produce long-term benefits or provide a temporary escape from a toxic social environment, but have generally not been understood as resilience (for a discussion, see ungar, 2015). in recent years, however, particularly in the fields of urban resilience and related to the topic of climate change, researchers have started to point to the paradox and costs of resilience. for example, chelleri, waters, olazabal, and minucci (2015) speak of urban resilience as “not necessarily a normatively positive concept anymore” (p.1) when the trade-offs are taken into account and the resilience of one ecological system comes at the cost of co-occurring systems. they suggest a focus on sustainability rather than resilience due to the assumption that resilience in a particular system is only being achieved at the expense of another system’s vulnerability. similarly, brewington (2016) speaks of the costs of maintaining social-ecological resilience due to the heterogeneous nature of societies which lead to “social and environmental perturbations” (p. 95), which is more often than not, “borne by those with the least social power” (p. 95). similarly, studies in the field of psychology have shown that among adolescents who experience significant adversities, those who evidence successful adaptation often struggle with covert psychological difficulties over time, such as problems of depression and posttraumatic stress (see luthar, doernberger, & zigler, 1993), a phenomenon attributable to overloaded stress response systems common to resilient children in persistently violent environments. evidence of such variations across domains has led some to question whether resilience is a veridical construct as opposed to a mythical entity (fischer et al., 1987; liddle, 1994). for these reasons, our discussion here benefits from a multidisciplinary understanding of resilience that contextualizes psychological adaptation with theory informed by sociology (neoliberalism and power relations), ecology, and human history.  
  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155  resilience on a spectrum: functional vs. less functional1 with few exceptions, the existing references to psychological resilience as a paradox (more resilience may actually create more vulnerability in some contexts) are few, though the paradox has been discussed much more in the context of climate change where catastrophic weather events are destroying human capital but allowing natural ecosystems to reclaim historical territory like coastal wetlands that thrive after a hurricane or forests after a wildfire. to explore this paradox, we focus on studying resilience on a spectrum, distinguishing between more and less functional resilience. specifically, we propose three questions: (1) is there a wrong degree of resilience? (2) is there a wrong context for resilience? and (3) is there a wrong type of resilience?  is there a wrong degree of resilience? early definitions of resilience contrasted the concept of positive development under stress with the condition of vulnerability, making resilience synonymous with invulnerability (anthony, 1987; for detailed discussions refer to cannon, 2008; cutter, boruff, & shirley, 2003). while this polarity has been challenged and resilience is now understood as its own unique dimension of well-being (one is only more or less resilient, and a low level of resilience is conceptually different from one’s degree of vulnerability). despite the change, the notion that there is an optimal amount of resilience persists and that higher levels of resilience are correlated with lower vulnerability. in practice, this means that researchers like prince-embury (2013) assumed that more educational supports for children with learning disabilities made them less vulnerable to stigma, bullying, or delinquency. this may have the appearance of truth, but in fact, increases to the factors that make children resilient are orthogonally related to decreases in vulnerability. as keyes (2002) has suggested, the factors that promote mental health are distinct from those that potentiate mental disorder. a child with a learning challenge, for example, may receive all the supports she requires to thrive academically but still cope with a toxic social environment which threatens her psychological and physical health outside the classroom. vulnerability, therefore, operates on its own continuum, placing individuals at more or less risk. in a systematic definition of vulnerability, scotti, beach, northrop, rode, and 1  in order to avoid creating yet another false dichotomy, functionality is not compared with an end-state of dysfunctionality, and is rather compared with ‘less-functional.’ we hope that this does not lead to any polarizations, as we believe humans are complex beings and such black and white adjectives cannot do justice to human actions/behaviors. however, these two terms are used in this paper for the lack of better words.  149  forsyth (1995) identified three categories: biological (genetic and physiological dispositions), historical (forms of psychopathology such as an individual’s socio-economic status), and psychological vulnerability (an individual’s cognitions and learned behavior). with regard to psychological vulnerability, one’s past experience with adversity (paton, smith, & violanti, 2000), frequency of exposure, and timing of stressful events, as well as the individual’s health status, fatigue, and psychological stress, can all influence the amount of vulnerability an individual experiences (flin, 1996). none of this, however, necessarily compromises ego-resiliency (anthony, 1987) as the individual’s resilience will reflect his “coping skills, acquired defensiveness, competence and support from external sources” (p.28). for this reason, it follows that even where there is evidence of vulnerability, the person who exhibits resilience may function in ways that suggest a range of coping styles from sociopathy (he survives but shows no regard for the welfare of others) to heroes (those who appear to bounce back from adversity without any negative consequences). each state of resilience along the continuum reflects the resources available. this is to say, invulnerability is context-dependent and is therefore not always perceived as positive by institutional leaders like mental health professionals, educators, employers, and government policymakers (ungar, 2004). shifting from the vulnerability continuum to degrees of resilience, one’s ability to mitigate exposure to risk and enhance functioning can range from less optimal or naive to functional and realistic. for example, psychological concepts like ‘false hope syndrome’ and ‘self-enhancing trait’ can appear similar to resilience-related factors like optimism and self-esteem, even though the former do little to create sustainable patterns of coping and may actually undermine the individual’s motivation to act in socially desirable ways that are synonymous with thriving. likewise, polivy and herman (2000) introduced “false hope syndrome” as a way to explain how individuals who have high hopes and expectations at the start of a process of personal change can actually be harmed by their optimism: “when these unrealistic expectations are not met, the outcome of attempted self-modification may be disappointment, discouragement, and a perception of oneself as a failure” (p. 82). self-confidence and high levels of self-efficacy—factors necessary for personal resilience—are only helpful when the goal or the desired outcome is realistically achievable. furthermore, snyder’s (snyder, rand, king, feldman, & woodward, 2002) “hope theory” theorizes different states of “high hope” and “low hope”. individuals who tend to have positive illusions about themselves and the outside world are high hopers who differ from low hopers who distort reality through denial and repression. although both groups misperceive reality, the ones with high hopes are closer to false hope. musschenga (2019) has discussed the same topics  
  150  by introducing “normative and epistemic justification” (p. 429) based on day’s (1991) formulations of hope. for musschenga, hope can be justified only if it is realistic, has cognitive elements, and is reasonable. this kind of hope, he believes, is epistemically justified and different from false hope in the sense that the latter is “epistemically unjustified hope” (p. 430). shaw, scully, and hart (2014) also observed that over-reliance on one’s coping ability was a source of fragility in the context of a natural disaster like a flood, where inhabitants of the solomon islands in 2002 displayed levels of self-reliance which the researchers refer to as “negative resilience” as it produced “resilience that is impossible to deliver” (p. 200). similarly, trait self-enhancement can be initially constructive but can also lead to darker consequences. selfenhancement is defined as “the tendency toward overly positive or unrealistic self-serving biases” (bonanno, rennike, & dekel, 2005, p. 985) which has been defended as a mediating factor in effective coping and resilience (taylor & brown, 1988). for example, bonanno and his team (bonanno et al., 2005) studied self-enhancement as a resilience predictor among 9/11 survivors in new york city. taylor, lerner, sherman, sage, and mcdowell (2003) observed how selfenhancers responded to stress better than non-self-enhancers. elsewhere, bonanno, field, kovacevic, and kaltman (2002) showed the positive effect of self-enhancement on adjustment to real-world stressors. although trait self-enhancers evidence positive traits like high self-esteem, there has been critique over how this trait hides the underlying personal and social liabilities such as unhampered narcissism (for details, see bonanno et al., 2005). in other works, self-enhancers have been described as manipulative or emotionally withdrawn (see paulhus & williams, 2002). self-enhancers’ strength in situations such as bereavement may, however, act in their favor and make them appear resilient to emotional turmoil but leads to their being judged unfavorably and unfeeling. in summary, an excessive degree of resilience, manifested as high hope and/or self-enhancing, can lead to undesirable outcomes. the long-term social and psychological difficulties which result from this excessive degree of individual resilience conjures up a picture as the darker side to resilience and a possible dysfunctional aspect to positive adaptation.  is there a wrong context for resilience? polivyconsidering “resilience cannot be conceptualised in contexts that are risk-free” (theron, 2012, p. 334), the context itself plays a leading role in what we understand as the resilience paradox. for example, resilience has been measured in contexts of loss and grief (e.g., mancini & bonanno, 2011), urban poverty and community violence (luthar & goldstein, 2004), maltreatment (afifi & macmillan, 2011; nishimi et al.,  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155  2020), serious mental illness (e.g., meyer & mueser, 2011), sexual assault (frey, beesley, abbott, & kendrick, 2017; resnick, guille, mccauley, & kilpatrick, 2011), terrorism (hobfoll, hall, horsey, & lamoureux, 2011), catastrophic life events (cox jr, 2012; riolli, savicki, & cepani, 2002), and economic challenge (e.g., buckner & waters, 2011). therefore, some form of challenging context must exist for resilience to occur. our question is whether every adverse context calls for a resilience response on the individual’s side. though the field of resilience research assumes everyone benefits from the presence of resilience-enhancing qualities, some contexts make these factors harmful to the long-term survival of the individual. for example, in regard to disaster risk reduction, resilience can be defined as “the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions” (unisdr, 2009, p. 24). though the definition presupposes resilience to be desirable, ogunbode et al. (2019) describe a “resilience paradox” (p. 703) in relation to climate change where reduced negative emotional responses to disaster can translate into less motivation to undertake climate change mitigation. they conclude that “support for victims of extreme weather should include explicit acknowledgement of the involvement of climate change and the need for action to mitigate future climate risks” (ogunbode et al., 2019, p.703). their conclusion—although limited to natural disasters and climate change—supports our overall hypothesis that different forms of individual resilience are not functional or optimal in every context. similarly, in contexts of poverty, resilience may not be the solution either if resilience means adapting to the idea of meritocracy, defined as “a society in which social position is absolutely a product of innate ability, coupled with application or effort - with the implication that social origins have no influence on outcomes” (boliver & byrne, 2013, p. 52). for example, carlin (2013), in his research on young people growing up in communities with long-term economic challenges, criticizes the positive attribution of strength in a context of chronic unemployment, social isolation, or violence. diprose’s (2015) perspective on how resilience is futile follows the same line of argument. she believes that “promotional culture celebrates overcoming-the-odds performance” (p.50) by placing responsibility solely on individuals for change. the outcome of constant striving in a context deprived of resources is likely to be learned helplessness (seligman, 1975). in contrast, a healthier experience of resilience than ‘bouncing back’ from poverty is manyena, o'brien, o'keefe, and rose’s (2011) concept of “bounce forward” whereby individuals and communities limit “poverty (by conserving and developing resources) and vulnerability (by reducing risk to people and assets)” (p. 417).  
  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155  in summary, in particular contexts, resilience can be wrongly deployed as an inducement to tolerate disparity and inequality, accepting the deferral of demands for change, or as an excuse to assign individuals who lack power the responsibility to change their lives.  is there a wrong usage for resilience? use of the term resilience has been traced back to greek writers from seneca the elder to ovid and cicero, through francis bacon who first used the term in its modern scientific form in his sylva sylvarum (1625), and its first use in connection with disaster recovery by tomes (1857), to finally being popularized in the study of social ecological systems by holling (1973) and then in psychology by a lengthy list of researchers in the late 1970s and early 1980s (alexander, 2013, p. 2709-10). putting aside the early meanings and usages of the term (for the etymology of the term, see alexander, 2013), before its promotion by psychology in the 20th century, the term had been used to connote positive qualities like flexibility and even sometimes negative ones like fickleness (see alexander, 2013). historically, however, the term is typically used to describe fortitude under stress that results in socially expected and desirable outcomes. while on the surface, these are preferred outcomes, use of the term resilience has also been misapplied to situations where the situation might more accurately have been described as producing vulnerability. one such example is the famous antarctic adventure by the british explorer, ernest shackleton. he and his team managed to survive 2 years shipwrecked in the cold wilderness. the expedition passed into history as an example of british heroism (lansing, 2001), and shackleton was praised for his unique faith and o ptimism. one w ay to look at schackleton’s case would be to interpret his perseverance as signs of personality resilience. this perspective would praise his superhuman bravery. however, such a perspective would also imply that any behavior, which deviates from that sort of bravery, is to be blamed for being a sign of timidity. when we set the norm to be a case like schackleton’s, the average person who may have (wisely) turned back and not endangered their ship and crew may seem weak and less resilient (or not resilient at all). in other words, use of the term resilient, when applied to exceptional human endeavors, may inadvertently make resilience unobtainable, or misconstrue the benefits of more measured action. this becomes even more questionable when we consider statements such as “the power of brave should be an action-prospect for all related to resilient programming” (sanders, 2018, p. 1). although research has shown that “bravery is linked to increased resilience, decreased ptsd-related symptomatology, and greater feelings of personal competence” (kugel, hausman, black, & bongar,  151  2017, n.p.), there have been some criticism regarding the interrelatedness of bravery and resilience. for example, john diamond (1998), a new york columnist, in his autobiography, c: because cowards get cancer too, made reference to this misconception, critiquing the mistaken assumption that people who died from cancer had not fought hard enough. likewise, the popularization of duckworth’s (2016) studies of grit originated from the work she did with the us military. while grit predicted which soldiers finished training, even duckworth admits that self-selecting out of training when it became difficult was a wise (and resilient) move for soldiers who realized that the role they were training for would be a bad fit for them mentally or physically. while stories of grit or bravery are always constructed as positive, failure is also a signifier of resilience if one changes the metrics of success to include the exercise of individual preferences. to illustrate this point another way, social norms have always played a role in the positive perception of resilience. for example, over time, different reactions to anxiety have been seen as adaptive, including opium addiction in the 19th century or compliance with psychopharmacological interventions in the 1990s. these days, however, anxiety disorders carry with them expectations that people seek therapy in addition to medication, redefining the right course of action and the right, or more resilient, way of dealing with anxiety (harper & speed, 2014). in a related context, furedi (2014) discusses how processes of representation have a legitimizing function for existing orthodoxies and how they contribute to the ongoing hegemonic dominance of medical frames of reference. furedi contextualizes the rise and growth of therapeutic culture and identifies the ways in which this creates specific ‘subject positions’ that complement wider forces of domination within psychiatry and society. likewise, it has been argued that resilience thinking consistently relies on the assumption that the social order is based upon consensus, while the neoliberal capitalist system involves dispossession and exploitation in ways that are inimical to the acquisition of safety and robust defenses against hazards (hornborg, 2009). there have been other similar attacks on resilience that reference its neoliberal implications. chandler, among the most active critics of resilience in the postmodern age, in a recent coauthored book with chandler and reid 2016, maintains that the problem of neoliberalism is that after exposure to risk, the individual, who is acting resilient, bounces back towards their initial state before exposure to the stressor, ignoring the fact that the original state was flawed, likely because of social or financial inequality or misconduct by governments and institutions. in all such cases, the resilience of the compliant individual is not only destructive, but a catalyst for further injustice. to illustrate, we can return to the example of the flooding that affected the solomon islands. survivors recovered largely on their own but they built the exact same one-story houses that could not withstand future floods (shaw et al., 2014). to describe their efforts as  
  152  resilience misuses the concept, suggesting that bad decisions that imperil a population (or an expedition to the antarctic) should be applauded as successful even though they show signs of poor judgment or a lack of resources. the solomon islanders may have had no choice but to rebuild on land previously occupied, but to call this return to an earlier regime of behavior resilience, undermines the need for social transformation. similarly, in a cautionary note on the nature of resilience, bracke (2016) in her paper vulnerability and resistance in times of resilience, using berlant’s terminology ‘cruel optimism’, writes that “individuals in our society remain so attached to fantasies of upward mobility, job security, political and social equality, and durable intimacy, despite the evidence suggesting that these fantasies are unachievable” (p. 62). bracke tags resilience as mildly cruel if “resilience holds a promise of individual survival” in a world full of threats as imminent as ecological disaster, and as “extensively” cruel if one considers the empty “promises of flourishing” where “grassroots support” is failing (p. 64). in short, resilience as a concept does not necessarily seed advocates; rather some theorists contend its negative nature, or go as far as creating an anti-resilience camp (evans & reid, 2014).  concluding remarks humans have always wanted to be strong. our strength has been framed differently over time, from mere survival to recovery to flourishing. in the academic world, prominent resilience scholars (ungar, 2012; masten & wright, 2010; rutter, 2012) maintain that the study of resilience is incomplete. masten and wright (2010), for example, criticize theories of resilience for their being rooted in the experiences of advantaged populations. in such contexts, the term resilience can be misused to mask structural and psychological problems. arguably, research on human capabilities and adaptive systems that promote healthy development and functioning have the potential to inform policy and programs that foster competence and human capital while also preventing problems, but only if we remain sensitive to the hegemonic tendencies when we use a terminology like resilience to imply all adaptation under stress is optimal. with this article, we seek to open discussion of the dark side of resilience, building on the disjointed body of scholarship which has suggested that resilience is not always positive. further research is needed to examine individual and community resilience and how the many aspects of personality and environment interact to produce truly sustainable and benevolent transformations in the ways people adapt to significant personal and structural challenges.  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155 code availability not applicable. author contribution all authors contributed to the study conception and design; data collection and analysis were performed by both authors. the first draft of the manuscript was written by first author and both authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. both authors read and approved the final manuscript. funding open access funding enabled and organized by projekt deal. data availability not applicable.  declarations conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution 4.0 international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's creative commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article's creative commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.  references adger, w. n. (2000). social and ecological resilience: are they related? progress in human geography, 24(3), 347–364. afifi, t. o., & macmillan, h. l. (2011). resilience following child maltreatment: a review of protective factors. the canadian journal of psychiatry, 56(5), 266–272. alexander, d. e. (2013). resilience and disaster risk reduction: an etymological journey. natural hazards & earth system sciences, 13(11), 2707–2716. anderson, t., busby, j., gouglidis, a., hough, k., hutchison, d., & rouncefield, m. (2020). human and organizational issues for resilient communications. in j. rak & d. hutchison (eds.), guide to disaster-resilient communication networks. computer communications and networks (pp. 791–807). cham: springer. anthony, e. j. (1987). risk, vulnerability, and resilience: an overview. in e. j. anthony & b. j. cohler (eds.), the invulnerable child (pp. 3– 48). new york: guilford press. armitage, d., & johnson, d. (2006). can resilience be reconciled with globalization and the increasingly complex conditions of resource degradation in asian coastal regions? ecology and society, 11(1) retrieved august 11, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/26267816. atkinson, p. a., martin, c. r., & rankin, j. (2009). resilience revisited. journal of psychiatric and mental health nursing, 16(2), 137–145. aubrecht, k. (2012). the new vocabulary of resilience and the governance of university student life. studies in social justice, 6(1), 67– 83. boliver, v., & byrne, d. (2013). social mobility: the politics, the reality, the alternative. soundings, 55(55), 61–60. bonanno, g. a., field, n. p., kovacevic, a., & kaltman, s. (2002). selfenhancement as a buffer against extreme adversity: civil war in  
  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155 bosnia and traumatic loss in the united states. personality and social psychology bulletin, 28, 184–196. bonanno, g. a., rennike, c., & dekel, s. (2005). self-enhancement among high exposure survivors of the september 11th terrorist attack: resilience or social maladjustment. journal of personality and social psychology, 88, 984–998. bracke, s. (2016). bouncing back: vulnerability and resistance in times of resilience. in j. butler, z. gambetti, & l. sabsay (eds.), vulnerability in resistance (pp. 52–75). durham: duke university press. brewington, s. d. (2016). the social costs of resilience: an example from the faroe islands. archeological papers of the american anthropological association, 27(1), 95–105. brown, k. (2016). resilience, development and global change. new york: routledge. buckner, j. c., & waters, j. s. (2011). resilience in the context of poverty. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health: challenges across the lifespan (pp. 264–275). new york: cambridge university press. cannon, t. (2008). vulnerability, innocent disasters and the imperative of cultural understanding. disaster prevention and management, 17, 350–357. carlin, e. (2013). youth transitions, social exclusion and the troubling concept of resilience. nyris12, 12-14 june, 2013, institute for international social studies, tallinn university chandler, d., & reid, j. (2016). the neoliberal subject: resilience, adaptation and vulnerability. london/new york: rowman & littlefield. chelleri, l., waters, j. j., olazabal, m., & minucci, g. (2015). resilience trade-offs: addressing multiple scales and temporal aspects of urban resilience. environment and urbanization, 27(1), 181–198. cox jr., l. a. (2012). community resilience and decision theory challenges for catastrophic events. risk analysis: an international journal, 32(11), 1919–1934. cutter, s. l., boruff, b. j., & shirley, w. l. (2003). social vulnerability to environmental hazards. social science quarterly, 84, 242–261. day, j. p. (1991). hope: a philosophical inquiry. philosophical society of finland: helsinki. deutsch, l., folke, c., & skanberg, k. (2003). the critical natural capital of ecosystem performance as insurance for human well-being. ecological economics, 44(2-3), 205–217. diamond, j. (1998). c: because cowards get cancer too. london: vermilion. diprose, k. (2015). resilience is futile. soundings, 58(58), 44–56. drapeau, s., saint-jacques, m. c., lepine, r., begin, g., & bernard, m. (2007). processes that contribute to resilience among youth in foster care. journal of adolescence, 30(6), 977–999. duckworth, a. (2016). grit: the power of passion and perseverance. toronto: harpercollins. elmqvist, t., andersson, e., frantzeskaki, n., mcphearson, t., olsson, p., gaffney, o., takeuchi, k., & folke, c. (2019). sustainability and resilience for transformation in the urban century. nature sustainability, 2(4), 267–273. evans, b., & reid, j. (2014). resilient life: the art of living dangerously. cambridge: polity press. fischer, k. w., lawrence, d., kokes, r. f., cole, r. e., perkins, p. m., & wynne, l. c. (1987). competent children at risk: a study of wellfunctioning offspring of disturbed parents. in e. j. anthony & b. cohler (eds.), the invulnerable child (pp. 221–228). new york: guilford press. flin, r. (1996). sitting in the hot seat: leaders and teams for critical incident management. chichester: wiley. frey, l. l., beesley, d., abbott, d., & kendrick, e. (2017). vicarious resilience in sexual assault and domestic violence advocates. psychological trauma: theory, research, practice, and policy, 9(1), 44.  153 furedi, f. (2014). is it justice? therapeutic history and the politics of recognition. in e. speed, j. moncrieff, & m. rapley (eds.), demedicalizing misery ii (pp. 1–18). london: palgrave macmillan. garmezy, n. (1974). the study of competence in children at risk for severe psychopathology. in e. j. anthony & c. koupernik (eds.), the child in his family: children at psychiatric risk: iii (p. 547). new york: wiley. harper, d., & speed, e. (2014). uncovering recovery: the resistible rise of recovery and resilience. in e. speed, j. moncrieff, & m. rapley (eds.), de-medicalizing misery ii (pp. 40–57). london: palgrave macmillan. hobfoll, s. e., hall, b., horsey, k. j., & lamoureux, b. e. (2011). resilience in the face of terrorism: linking resource investment with engagement. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health: challenges across the lifespan (pp. 253–263). new york: cambridge university press. holling, c. s. (1973). resilience and stability of ecological systems. annual review of ecology and systematics, 4(1), 1–23. hornborg, a. (2009). zero-sum world: challenges in conceptualizing environmental load displacement and ecologically unequal exchange in the world-system. international journal of comparative sociology, 50(3-4), 237–262. houshyar, s., gold, a., & devries, m. (2013). resiliency in maltreated children. in s. goldstein & r. brooks (eds.), handbook of resilience in children (pp. 161–179). boston: springer. howell, a. (2015). resilience, war, and austerity: the ethics of military human enhancement and the politics of data. security dialogue, 46(1), 15–31. howell, a., & voronka, j. (2012). introduction: the politics of resilience and recovery in mental health care. studies in social justice, 6(1), 1–7. kaplan, h. b. (1999). towards an understanding of resilience: a critical review of definitions and models. in m. d. glantz & j. l. johnson (eds.), resilience and development: positive life adaptations (pp. 17–84). new york: kulwer/plenum. kaplan, h. b. (2005). understanding the concept of resilience. in s. goldstein & r. b. brooks (eds.), handbook of resilience in children (pp. 39–47). boston: springer. kaplan, h. b. (2013). reconceputalizing resilience. in s. goldstein & r. b. brooks (eds.), handbook of resilience in children (pp. 39–55). boston: springer. keyes, c. l. m. (2002). the mental health continuum: from languishing to flourishing in life. journal of health and social research, 43, 207–222. kugel, u., hausman, c., black, l., & bongar, b. (2017 july). psychology of physical bravery. oxford handbooks online: scholarly research reviews. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/ 9780199935291.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935291-e-36. kuhlicke, c. (2013). resilience: a capacity and a myth: findings from an in-depth case study in disaster management research. natural hazards, 67(1), 61–76. lansing, a. (2001). endurance: shackleton's incredible voyage. london: weidenfeld & nicolson. liddle, h. a. (1994). contextualizing resiliency. in m. c. wang & e. w. gordon (eds.), educational resilience in inner-city america: challenges and prospects (pp. 167–177). hillsdale: erlbaum. luthar, s. s. (2006). resilience in development: a synthesis of research across five decades. in d. cicchetti & d. j. cohen (eds.), developmental psychopathology: risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 739–795). new jersey: john wiley & sons. luthar, s. s., cicchetti, d., & becker, b. (2000). the construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. child development, 71(3), 543–562. luthar, s. s., crossman, e. j., & small, p. j. (2015). resilience and adversity. in r. m. lerner (ed.), handbook of child psychology and developmental science (pp. 1–40). https://doi.org/10.1002/ 9781118963418.childpsy307.  
  154 luthar, s. s., doernberger, c. h., & zigler, e. (1993). resilience is not a unidimensional construct: insights from a prospective study on innercity adolescents. development and psychopathology, 5, 703–717. luthar, s. s., & goldstein, a. (2004). children's exposure to community violence: implications for understanding risk and resilience. journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology, 33(3), 499–505. mancini, a. d., & bonanno, g. a. (2011). loss and grief: the role of individual differences. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health: challenges across the lifespan (pp. 189–199). cambridge: cambridge university press. manyena, b., o'brien, g., o'keefe, p., & rose, j. (2011). disaster resilience: a bounce back or bounce forward ability? local environment: the international journal of justice and sustainability, 16(5), 417–424. masten, a. s., cutuli, j. j., herbers, j. e., & reed, m. j. (2009). positive psychology across the lifespan. in s. j. lopez & c. r. snyder (eds.), oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 117–132). oxford, uk: oxford university press. masten, a. s., & wright, m. o. (2010). resilience over the lifespan: developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. in j. w. reich, a. j. zautra, & j. s. hall (eds.), handbook of adult resilience (pp. 213–237). new york: the guilford press. meyer, p. s., & mueser, k. t. (2011). resiliency in individuals with serious mental illness. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health: challenges across the lifespan (pp. 189–199). cambridge: cambridge university press. musschenga, b. (2019). is there a problem with false hope? the journal of medicine and philosophy: a forum for bioethics and philosophy of medicine, 44(4), 423–441. nishimi, k., choi, k. w., davis, k. a., powers, a., bradley, b., & dunn, e. c. (2020). features of childhood maltreatment and resilience capacity in adulthood: results from a large, community-based sample. journal of traumatic stress., 33, 665–676. https://doi.org/10. 1002/jts.22543. ogunbode, c. a., bohm, g., capstick, s. b., demski, c., spence, a., & tausch, n. (2019). the resilience paradox: flooding experience, coping and climate change mitigation intentions. climate policy, 19(6), 703–715. olsson, p., gunderson, l. h., carpenter, s. r., ryan, p., lebel, l., folke, c., & holling, c. s. (2006). shooting the rapids: navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. ecology and society, 11(1) retrieved august 11, 2020, from www.jstor.org/ stable/26267806. paton, d., smith, l., & violanti, j. (2000). disaster response: risk, vulnerability and resilience. disaster prevention and management, 9(3), 173–180. paulhus, d. l., & williams, k. m. (2002). the dark triad of personality: narcissism, machiavellianism, and psychopathy. journal of research in personality, 36(6), 556–563. perrings, c. (2006). resilience and sustainable development. environment and development economics, 11(4), 417–427. pickett, s. t., mcgrath, b., cadenasso, m. l., & felson, a. j. (2014). ecological resilience and resilient cities. building research & information, 42(2), 143–157. polivy, j., & herman, c. p. (2000). the false hope syndrome: unfulfilled expectations of self-change. current directions in psychological science, 9, 128–131. prince-embury, s. (2013). resiliency scales for children and adolescents: theory, research, and clinical application. in s. prince-embury & d. h. saklofske (eds.), resilience in children, adolescents, and adults: translating research into practice (pp. 19–44). new york: springer. resnick, h. s., guille, c., mccauley, j. l., & kilpatrick, d. g. (2011). rape and other sexual assault. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health:  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155 challenges across the lifespan (pp. 218–237). new york: cambridge university press. riolli, l., savicki, v., & cepani, a. (2002). resilience in the face of catastrophe: optimism, personality, and coping in the kosovo crisis. journal of applied social psychology, 32(8), 1604–1627. rutter, m. (1990). psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. in j. rolf, a. masten, d. cicchetti, k. nuechterlein, & s. weintraub (eds.), risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). new york: cambridge university press. rutter, m. (2012). resilience as a dynamic concept. development and psychopathology, 24(2), 335–344. sanders, f. (2018). dutch resiliency of under sea-level cities due to brave people [conference presentation]. rrau18, groningen, the netherlands. https://research.tudelft.nl/en/publications/dutchresiliency-of-under-sea-level-cities-due-to-brave-people schaefer, j. a., & moos, r. h. (1992). life crises and personal growth. in b. n. carpenter (ed.), personal coping: theory, research, and application (pp. 149–170). praeger publishers/greenwood publishing group. scotti, j. r., beach, b. k., northrop, l. m. e., rode, c. a., & forsyth, j. p. (1995). the psychological impact of accidental injury. in j. r. freedy & s. e. hobfoll (eds.), traumatic stress: from theory to practice (pp. 181–212). boston: springer. seligman, m. e. p. (1975). helplessness: on depression, development, and death. san francisco: w. h. freeman. shaw, d., scully, j., & hart, t. (2014). the paradox of social resilience: how cognitive strategies and coping mechanisms attenuate and accentuate resilience. global environmental change, 25, 194–203. snyder, c. r., rand, k. l., king, e. a., feldman, d. b., & woodward, j. t. (2002). “false” hope. journal of clinical psychology, 58(9), 1003–1022. tarter, r., vanyukov, m., giancola, p., dawes, m., blackson, t., mezzich, a. d. a., & clark, d. b. (1999). etiology of early age onset substance use disorder: a maturational perspective. development and psychopathology, 11(4), 657–683. taylor, s. e., & brown, j. d. (1988). illusion and well-being: a social psychological perspective on mental health. psychological bulletin, 103(2), 193–210. taylor, s. e., lerner, j. s., sherman, d. k., sage, r. m., & mcdowell, n. k. (2003). are self-enhancing cognitions associated with healthy or unhealthy biological profiles? journal of personality and social psychology, 85, 605–615. theron, l. c. (2012). resilience research with south african youth: caveats and ethical complexities. south african journal of psychology, 42(3), 333–345. tomes, r. (1857). the americans in japan, an abridgment of the government narrative of the u.s. expedition to japan under commodore perry. new york: d. appleton. torres, a., southwick, s. m., & mayes, l. c. (2011). childhood resilience: adaptation, mastery. in s. m. southwick, b. t. litz, d. charney, & m. j. friedman (eds.), resilience and mental health: challenges across the lifespan (pp. 307–320). cambridge: cambridge university press. unisdr. (2009). drought risk reduction framework. practices: contributing to the implementation of the hyogo framework for action. united nations secretariat of the international strategy for disaster reduction (unisdr), geneva, switzerland. ungar, m. (2004). nurturing hidden resilience in troubled youth. toronto, on: university of toronto press. ungar, m. (2012). researching and theorizing resilience across cultures and contexts. preventive medicine: an international journal devoted to practice and theory, 55(5), 387–389. ungar, m. (2015). patterns of family resilience. journal of marital and family therapy, 42(1), 19-31. ungar, m. (2019). change your world: the science of resilience and the true path to success. sutherland house: toronto, on.  
  adv res sci (2021) 2:147–155 ungar, m. (2020). working with children and youth with complex needs: 20 skills to build resilience (2nd edition). new york: routledge.  155 werner, e., & smith, r. (1982). vulnerable but invincible: a study of resilient children. new york: mcgraw-hill.  
       


secondary_title_index: european journal of psychotraumatology
title_index: resilience after trauma: from surviving to thriving
full_text_index:
       european journal of psychotraumatology  issn: (print) 2000-8066 (online) journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/zept20  resilience after trauma: from surviving to thriving nicole r. nugent, jennifer a. sumner & ananda b. amstadter to cite this article: nicole r. nugent, jennifer a. sumner & ananda b. amstadter (2014) resilience after trauma: from surviving to thriving, european journal of psychotraumatology, 5:1, 25339, doi: 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339 to link to this article: https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339   2014 nicole r. nugent et al.  published online: 01 oct 2014.  submit your article to this journal  article views: 6354  view related articles  view crossmark data  full terms & conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode zept20  
  european journal of  psychotraumatology æ editorial  resilience after trauma: from surviving to thriving this paper is part of the special issue: resilience and trauma. more papers from this issue can be found at http://www.eurojnlofpsychotraumatol.net  esilience after trauma is one of the most compelling phenomena in contemporary traumatic stress research. to increase the understanding of resilience and its applications to policy, research, assessment, prevention, and intervention in the field of traumatic stress, professionals from across the globe gathered for the 29th annual meeting of the international society for traumatic stress studies (istss) themed ‘‘resilience after trauma: from surviving to thriving.’’ in this thematic cluster, we highlight contributions from the plenaries from the 2013 meeting. we hope to find answers to: what is resilience? who is resilient and what makes them so? how can resilience be fostered in the wake of trauma? what can we learn from highly resilient individuals that will help inform our work with survivors? the first paper is based on a panel discussion chaired by dr. steven southwick (southwick et al., 2014). the esteemed panelists, drs. george bonanno, catherine panter-brick, ann masten, and rachel yehuda, had a lively and spirited discussion about how best to approach the definition and scientific study of this important concept. here, the panelists expand on the discussion points posed by dr. southwick. the second paper, written by dr. dennis charney and his colleague dr. brian iacoviello (iacoviello & charney, 2014), was inspired by dr. charney’s moving plenary session that integrated his research on the neurobiology of resilience with real-world examples from his personal interviews with resilient individuals. the third paper is a dialog between amanda lindhout, a humanitarian and social activist, and dr. katherine porterfield, a psychologist who has been an important part of ms. lindhout’s treatment experiences (lindhout & porterfield, 2014). at the conference, ms. lindhout delivered a poignant personal account of her resilience in the aftermath of her kidnapping, and the related submission is inspired by questions from attendees of her talk. amanda was a journalist in somalia when she was kidnapped and held hostage for 460 days. after her release, she enacted the promise she’d made to herself during her captivity by founding the non-profit global enrichment foundation, which provides educational and community-based empowerment programs, as well as humanitarian interventions during crisis. these plenary  r  presentations, and the manuscripts yielded from them, will aid the field’s understanding of the many potential trajectories of health following traumatic exposure, ranging from the development of persistent stress-related disorders to posttraumatic growth. in the perceptive piece contributed by southwick et al. (2014), southwick and his co-authors*experts in resilience from different disciplines*tackle the challenging task of answering key questions regarding the nature of resilience. these questions do not have simple answers, and this article offers a thought-provoking discussion about the current state of the field and presents ideas about next steps to further our knowledge about fostering resilience in individuals, families, and communities affected by traumatic stressors. each of the experts provides a commentary on their work on resilience and how it has evolved over time. these authors have employed different definitions of resilience in their own work, and many noted that the definitions they themselves use in their research have evolved over time. nonetheless, there were a number of points of consensus among the experts. first, it was noted that a large focus of energy has been placed on understanding the underpinnings of responses to traumatic stressors that are on the negative end of the spectrum (e.g., chronic psychopathology and impairment), and by doing so, the field has neglected to also focus on the factors that give rise to resilient outcomes. second, the complexity of this concept was uniformly agreed upon; the authors note that resilience is not monolithic, but rather is more of a continuum. they note that resilience may be domain specific, as well as culture and context specific. third, the authors concurred that given that individuals are embedded in systems (e.g., families, religions, organizations, communities, societies), a multilevel and multidisciplinary approach must be implemented in order to fully elucidate determinates of resilience and effectively foster resilience. in addition, the authors agreed that the inclusion of novel technologies into resilience studies, such as biomarkers, has scope both for basic and intervention science. although not presented by the panelists, an additional perspective described in other talks and in the dialog of istss attendees is that resilience and psychological  european journal of psychotraumatology 2014. # 2014 nicole r. nugent et al. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution 4.0 unported (cc-by 4.0) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format, and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, for any purpose, even commercially, under the condition that appropriate credit is given, that a link to the license is provided, and that you indicate if changes were made. you may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. citation: european journal of psychotraumatology 2014, 5: 25339 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339  1  (page number not for citation purpose)  
  nicole r. nugent et al.  symptoms are not necessarily a single continuum. during amanda lindhout’s talk, for example, ms. lindhout described her daily (and sometimes moment-to-moment) decision to be present in her life and to move forward in resilience at the same time that she continues to face symptoms commonly experienced by those with posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd). others have argued that resilience and symptoms can coexist as independent orthogonal constructs (luthar, cicchetti, & becker, 2000; shalev & errera, 2008; shalev, tuval-mashiach, & hadar, 2004). indeed, one study of jews exposed to repeated terrorism found that higher levels of posttraumatic growth were associated with probable ptsd (hobfoll et al., 2008). amanda lindhout’s discussion with dr. porterfield illustrates the idea that extreme trauma can take a real toll while the survivor may remain resilient in critically important ways. when describing her response to serving as a journalist reporting on extreme trauma, amanda lindhout describes how her experiences at that time had compelled her to want to understand what ‘‘enables human survival when so much has been destroyed.’’ her article provides a remarkable window into the qualities and experiences that would permit ms. lindhout’s own survival and even resilience during, and in the years that followed, her abduction and captivity. while facing trauma, ms. lindhout describes using mindfulness, relaxation techniques, exercise, cognitive strategies ranging from distraction to reframing and cognitive flexibility, and social support. ms. lindhout also describes forgiveness as critically important to facilitating her coping and resilience both during and after her traumatic experiences. an emerging scientific literature points to the benefits of forgiveness*of others and of oneself*for survivors of a range of traumatic experiences (hamama-raz, solomon, cohen, & laufer, 2008; snyder & heinze, 2005; van loey, van son, van der heijden, & ellis, 2008; weinberg, gil, & gilbar, 2013; witvliet, phipps, feldman, & beckham, 2004). indeed, there is initial evidence supporting an intervention focused on forgiveness (reed & enright, 2006), and one recent intervention study framed forgiveness as a key part of ‘‘affective resolution’’ (ford, chang, levine, & zhang, 2013). ms. lindhout also provides important information for the trauma community regarding being pushed to spend 10 days detailing her experiences to a psychologist in a ‘‘debriefing.’’ ms. lindhout described having been in a vulnerable place following her release and feeling unable to refuse the interview, which she experienced as distressing both during the interview and upon later reflection. importantly, imposed acute posttrauma ‘‘debriefing’’ is not supported by research or practice parameters from relevant professional organizations (bisson et al., 2010; forneris et al., 2013; nash & watson, 2012; tol, barbui, & van ommeren, 2013). of particular relevance to clinicians and researchers alike,  2 (page number not for citation purpose)  ms. lindhout describes her own experiences with symptoms of ptsd as well as components of her experiences with psychotherapy. finally, dr. porterfield comments on ms. lindhout’s responses, placing them in the context of extant scientific research related to resilience and treatment for ptsd. this cluster also includes a thoughtful contribution written by dr. karestan koenen (koenen et al., 2014) on amanda lindhout and sara corbett’s book, a house in the sky. in this paper, dr. koenen reflects on her personal reactions to a house in the sky. she notes how the authors struck a delicate balance between describing the details surrounding the traumatic experiences amanda was exposed to, while simultaneously focusing on amanda’s reactions to the events and her active and purposeful efforts to cope with the atrocities she experienced. dr. koenen comments on how amanda’s recovery process in the areas of both physical and mental health can inform traumatic stress professionals. in their contribution to this special section, drs. iacoviello and charney provide a nuanced and encompassing perspective on what characterizes resilience and how we can foster these adaptive characteristics in order to promote well-being after adversity. based on an integration of findings from both empirical studies and interviews with individuals who exhibited resilience in the aftermath of severe trauma, charney and colleagues have identified six psychosocial factors that promote resilience in individuals: 1) optimism, 2) cognitive flexibility, 3) active coping skills, 4) maintaining a supportive social network, 5) attending to one’s physical well-being, and 6) embracing a personal moral compass. these factors comprise cognitive, behavioral, and existential elements, a conceptualization that has been supported by other research on the nature of resilience (e.g., bradley et al., 2013; connor & davidson, 2003), and they interact with one another to encourage resilient functioning after adversity. not only do these psychosocial factors help to identify those individuals who are most likely to exhibit resilience after trauma (e.g., ahmad et al., 2010; bonanno, papa, lalande, westphal, & coifman, 2004; pietrzak & southwick, 2011), but they also represent targets for intervention. these psychosocial factors are malleable, and charney provides recommendations for how individuals can foster the different cognitive, behavioral, and existential components that promote resilience. moreover, drs. iacoviello and charney describe how two empirically supported treatments for ptsd* prolonged exposure therapy and cognitive processing therapy*cultivate some of these characteristics in traumaexposed patients (e.g., by fostering active coping). nevertheless, existing interventions do not address all six psychosocial factors that promote resilience, and the authors highlight ways to augment current treatment protocols by specifically targeting additional factors shown  citation: european journal of psychotraumatology 2014, 5: 25339 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339  
  resilience after trauma  to foster resilience, such as interpersonal effectiveness. although efficacious treatments for ptsd exist (e.g., bisson et al., 2007; cloitre, 2009), not all individuals respond to current approaches. expanding treatments by incorporating resilience-focused elements could be one way to increase the positive impact of psychosocial therapeutic interventions. furthermore, specific resiliencefocused training programs (e.g., lester et al., 2011; rose et al., 2013) may represent another promising future direction, particularly with respect to prevention. iacoviello and charney acutely note how resilience is not just relevant to posttrauma functioning but that it is also pertinent before individuals experience trauma. promoting resilience with these training programs prior to trauma exposure, as well as in the immediate aftermath of trauma prior to the development of posttraumatic psychopathology, may hold potential as primary and secondary prevention measures. in addition to describing the psychosocial characteristics that promote resilience in individuals, iacoviello and charney describe four qualities (i.e., social capital, community competencies, economic development, and information and communication) that characterize resilient communities (e.g., norris et al., 2008). in doing so, they make connections between research on resilient individuals and resilient communities, and they draw parallels between the cognitive, behavioral, and existential factors that promote resilience at both the individual and the community level. in sum, resilience does not apply to just one population or context. charney’s collaborative work emphasizes how the psychosocial factors that promote resilience operate at multiple levels and are relevant both prior to and after trauma. the contributions of this work offer guidance and inspiration for both researchers and clinicians who strive to help trauma-exposed populations. taken together, these articles highlight the challenges in defining and measuring resilience, as well as the importance of increased scientific and clinical focus on resilience. illustrated by the debate among the panelists, perhaps the greatest challenge ahead for the trauma community is to continue to work toward refining and even redefining our definitions of ‘‘resilience.’’ researchers may wish to distinguish the dynamic process of resilience, which may change both across and within individuals over time, from a trait-like construct, although traits such as optimism or hardiness may indeed contribute to resilience during and following trauma (luthar et al., 2000). as others have described (luthar et al., 2000), researchers and clinicians would be well served to distinguish among domains of functioning when considering resilience; for example, a police officer might perform at a high level at work while also experiencing symptoms of ptsd that may impact other areas of life, such as social functioning. illustrated nicely by all of the articles, the study of resilience, including understanding factors that promote resilience  over the course of trauma and life after trauma, must be the central goal for researchers and clinicians in the field of traumatic stress studies. nicole r. nugent department of psychiatry and human behavior warren alpert medical school at brown university and bradley hasbro research center rhode island hospital providence, rhode island jennifer a. sumner department of epidemiology columbia university mailman school of public health new york, ny usa ananda b. amstadter virginia institute for psychiatric and behavioral genetics in the departments of psychiatry, psychology, & human and molecular genetics at virginia commonwealth university richmond, va usa  conflict of interest and funding dr. amstadter is supported by grants r01aa020179, k02 aa023239, bbrf 20066, r01mh101518, and p60md002256. dr. nugent is supported by grants k01 mh087240, r01 mh095786, and r01 hd071982.  references ahmad, s., feder, a., lee, e. j., wang, y., southwick, s. m., schlackman, e., et al. (2010). earthquake impact in a remote south asian population: psychosocial factors and posttraumatic symptoms. journal of traumatic stress, 23, 408 412. bisson, j., ehlers, a., matthews, r., pilling, s., richards, d., & turner, s. (2007). systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. british journal of psychiatry, 190, 97 104. bisson, j. i., tavakoly, b., witteveen, a. b., ajdukovic, d., jehel, l., johansen, v. j., et al. (2010). tents guidelines: development of post-disaster psychosocial care guidelines through a delphi process. the british journal of psychiatry, 196(1), 69 74. bonanno, g. a., papa, a., lalande, k., westphal, m., & coifman, k. (2004). the importance of being flexible: the ability to both enhance and suppress emotional expression predicts long-term adjustment. psychological science, 15, 482 487. bradley, b., davis, t. a., wingo, a. p., mercer, k. b., & ressler, k. j. (2013). family environment and adult resilience: contributions of positive parenting and the oxytocin receptor gene. european journal of psychotraumatology, 4, 21659, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v4i0.21659 cloitre, m. (2009). effective psychotherapies for posttraumatic stress disorder: a review and critique. cns spectrums, 14(suppl 1), 32 43.  citation: european journal of psychotraumatology 2014, 5: 25339 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339  3  (page number not for citation purpose)  
  nicole r. nugent et al.  connor, k. m., & davidson, j. r. t. (2003). development of a new resilience scale: the connor-davidson resilience scale (cd-risc). depression and anxiety, 18, 76 82. ford, j. d., chang, r., levine, j., & zhang, w. (2013). randomized clinical trial comparing affect regulation and supportive group therapies for victimization-related ptsd with incarcerated women. behavior therapy, 44(2), 262 276. forneris, c. a., gartlehner, g., brownley, k. a., gaynes, b. n., sonis, j., coker-schwimmer, e., et al. (2013). interventions to prevent post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. american journal of preventive medicine, 44(6), 635 650. hamama-raz, y., solomon, z., cohen, a., & laufer, a. (2008). ptsd symptoms, forgiveness, and revenge among israeli palestinian and jewish adolescents. journal of traumatic stress, 21(6), 521 529. hobfoll, s. e., canetti-nisim, d., johnson, r. j., palmieri, p. a., varley, j. d., & galea, s. (2008). the association of exposure, risk, and resiliency factors with ptsd among jews and arabs exposed to repeated acts of terrorism in israel. journal of traumatic stress, 21(1), 9 21. iacoviello, b. m., & charney, d. s. (2014). psychosocial facets of resilience: implications for preventing posttrauma psychopathology, treating trauma survivors, and enhancing community resilience. european journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 23970, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.23970 koenen, k. c. (2014). a reflection on a house in the sky by amanda lindhout and sara corbett. european journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 25305, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ ejpt.v5.25305 lester, p. b., mcbride, s., bliese, p. d., & adler, a. b. (2011). bringing science to bear: an empirical assessment of the comprehensive soldier fitness program. american psychologist, 66, 77 81. lindhout, a., & porterfield, k. (2014). healing in forgiveness: a discussion with amanda lindhout and dr. katherine porterfield. european journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 24390, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.24390 luthar, s. s., cicchetti, d., & becker, b. (2000). the construct of reslilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. child development, 71(3), 543 562. nash, w. p., & watson, p. j. (2012). review of va/dod clinical practice guideline on management of acute stress and interventions to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder. journal of rehabilitation research and development, 49(5), 637. norris, f. h., stevens, s. p., pfefferbaum, b., wyche, k. f., & pfefferbaum, r. l. (2008). community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster  4 (page number not for citation purpose)  readiness. american journal of community psychology, 41, 127 150. pietrzak, r. h., & southwick, s. m. (2011). psychological resilience in oef-oif veterans: application of a novel classification approach and examination of demographic and psychosocial correlates. journal of affective disorders, 133, 560 568. reed, g. l., & enright, r. d. (2006). the effects of forgiveness therapy on depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress for women after spousal emotional abuse. journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 74(5), 920 929. rose, r. d., buckey, j. c., zbozinek, t. d., motivala, s. j., glenn, d. e., cartreine, j. a., et al. (2013). a randomized controlled trial of a self-guided, multimedia, stress management and resilience training program. behaviour research and therapy, 51, 106 112. southwick et al., (2014). resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. european journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 25338, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ ejpt.v5.25338 shalev, a. y., & errera, y. (2008). resilience is the default: how not to miss it. in m. blumenfield & r. j. ursano (eds.), intervention and resilience after mass trauma (pp. 149 172). cambridge: cambridge university press. shalev, a. y., tuval-mashiach, r., & hadar, h. (2004). posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of mass trauma. the journal of clinical psychiatry, 65(suppl 1), 4. snyder, c. r., & heinze, l. s. (2005). forgiveness as a mediator of the relationship between ptsd and hostility in survivors of childhood abuse. cognition & emotion, 19(3), 413 431. tol, w. a., barbui, c., & van ommeren, m. (2013). management of acute stress, ptsd, and bereavement: who recommendations. jama, 310(5), 477 478. van loey, n. e. e., van son, m. j. m., van der heijden, p. g. m., & ellis, i. m. (2008). ptsd in persons with burns: an explorative study examining relationships with attributed responsibility, negative and positive emotional states. burns, 34(8), 1082 1089. weinberg, m., gil, s., & gilbar, o. (2013). forgiveness, coping, and terrorism: do tendency to forgive and coping strategies associate with the level of posttraumatic symptoms of injured victims of terror attacks? journal of clinical psychology, 70, 693 703. witvliet, c. v. o., phipps, k. a., feldman, m. e., & beckham, j. c. (2004). posttraumatic mental and physical health correlates of forgiveness and religious coping in military veterans. journal of traumatic stress, 17(3), 269 273.  citation: european journal of psychotraumatology 2014, 5: 25339 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25339  
       


